hints may be compared with magic a system capable of generating multimodal healthcare briefings mckeown but whereas magic is intended to produce multimodal briefings about particular patients for time pressured caregivers hints is a resource for health officers who monitor communicable diseases around the world based on collected documents
this capability can be of considerable value as is demonstrated by the tree project the tree system can search the intemet for job ads and then summarize these in various languages
the most notable second generation system is kpml komet penman multilingual developed by john bateman and his group first at gmd ipsi in germany and now at stirling university scotland
klipple documents a divergence between english and french in the semantics of direction
since any finite sample is consistent with an infinite number of languages l can not be identified uniquely from d the best we can hope to do is to infer a grammar that will describe the strings in d and predict other strings that in some sense are of the same nature as those contained in d p NUM
on the other hand while there have been many similarity measures proposed and analyzed in the information retrieval literature there has been some doubt expressed in that community that the choice of similarity metric has any practical impact several authors have pointed out that the difference in retrieval performance achieved by different measures of association is insignificant providing that these are appropriately normalised
the complete set of such parameters and values constitutes a universal grammar ug
the implications of the referential attributive distinction for centering theory are discussed in grosz et a1 NUM
for instance even if the tabular interpretation we have presented has we believe the best possible complexity it is still possible using techniques outside the scope of this paper barth61emy and villemonte to improve its efficiency by refining what information should be kept in each kind of items hence increasing computation sharing and reducing the number of items
different variants of 2sa or not so distant embedded push down automata have been proposed some to describe top down some to describe bottom up alonso but none that we know that are able to describe both kinds of strategies
table s taxonomy of discourse relations
NUM table NUM shows how likely the attachments in data set used in
a popular school of thought on this issue is echoed in the following quotation gossip takes data from an audit trail of an operating system and produces a report for a security officer on user activity over the period
a tool to support inventors in the authoring of patent claims allows the user to build a semantic model of the invented apparatus by selecting via multiple choice menu options the apparatus parts their functions and relations to each other
allen and core1997 compared with the examples above which differ completely from the rest e.g.
tree adjoining grammars are a extension of cfg introduced by joshi that use trees instead of productions as primary representing structure
our method is based on a decision list proposed by
these requirements will be discussed with regard to the physviz towns and the plant world self explaining 3d environments for the domains of physics and plant physiology respectively
embodied explanation generation poses particularly interesting challenges in the following areas deictic believability lifelike agents must be able to employ referring expressions and gestures that together are both unambiguous and natural
we have recently begun to study these issues in cops robber s bares gr a 3d interactive fiction testbed with multiple characters interacting with each other in an intricate cityscape
our work concentrates on the definition of a high level descriptive language for morphology based on regular expressions feature structures and inheritance and on an implementation of a parsing and generation system allowing for rapid development of formal morphological models in the
finally take advantage of mathematical properties to structure certain types of mathematical proofs
in order to assess the performance of the ga on known infinite languages and to compare it to another ga based technique with similar aims experiments were carried out for four previously investigated learning tasks
flag diacritics were inspired by the feature requirements of the ment and by similar schemes in use at xerox NUM but related schemes have apparently been invented and reinvented many times going back to the days of atns
an important criteria is that the texts represent a realistic model of the language to be
the above mentioned linguistic information is required for term extraction which is mainly inspired by the work in
the vit semantics of the protocol formulation is then handed over to the syntactic generator vm geco for verbalization
however check moves are almost always about some information which the speaker has been told a description that models the backward looking functionality of a dialogue act
the approach in mate is to reuse the damsl scheme as an example for an internal multi dimensional scheme and a variant of the swbd damsl scheme as its example flattened surface counterpart
we evaluated the similarity functions introduced in the previous section on a binary decision task using the same experimental framework as in our previous preliminary comparison
arguably the most widely used is the mutual
parsing then is modelled as a partial constraint satisfaction problem with which can almost always be disambiguated towards a single solution if only the grammar provides enough evidence which means that the csp is overconstrained in the classical sense because at least preferential constraints are violated by the solution
this allows to influence the temporal characteristics of the parsing procedure a possibility which seems especially important in interactive applications if the system has to deliver a reasonable solution within a specific time interval a dynamic scheduling of computational resources depending on the remaining ambiguity and available time is anytime algorithm
all sentences of length greater than NUM were ignored for testing purposes as done in both
evaluation was performed by measuring the perplexity of the ppmc model with respect to the testing corpus
algorithm the naive works by specifying a total order on noun phrases in the prior discourse and comparing each noun phrase against the selectional restrictions i.e.
NUM the propagation rule for uncertain evidence and the more general formulae used for propagation in singly connected causal networks given are similarly modified by means of the three multiplicative factors
the confusion probability has been used by several authors to smooth word cooccurrence probabilities it measures the degree to which word m can be substituted into the contexts in which n appears
the system described in generates its own arguments and presents them enthymematically
functional morphemes in the same eojeol
three numbers corresponding to the categorms a b and c separated by we ca n t make a direct comparison to other methods for example while also used edr and wordnet they used only connected
are hard to compare against ours because his parser returns more than a singe best parse and because he measures processing time not edges
if one monitors the instantaneous entropy of a language model as it scans across an english text one generally finds that regions of high entropy correspond with word
the extraction algorithm is presented in
this menu also provides an interface for the visualisation of word graphs by piping these word graphs to either the or dotty graph drawing tools
for example used a maximum entropy NUM science techn
is washington a place or a person the named entities and co references to them she he the company in text is also a primary concern in systems for information
our first application of wysiwym editing was in the context of the drafter project which developed a system to support the production of software documentation in english and french e.g.
indeed within theiast year there has been a specialist tutorial and a journal article aimed at guiding interested parties on how to build such systems a textbook on this subject is also about to appear reiter and dale forthcoming
in nl generationl conversational aspects have been addressed especially in interactive explanation and instruction
maruyama describes full parsing by means of constraint satisfaction for the first time
an additional confusion factor is that subjective measures of familiarity which actually can better predict access time than more objective frequency
some prefer to hold onto this assumption and to seek a faster converging probability distribution for which the series converges to
for our experiment we used a tree bank grammar induced from sections NUM NUM of the penn wall street journal text with section NUM reserved for testing
in contrast we applied a machine learning approach to ellipsis resolution
the most popular touchstone in this field is the verbal case frame or the translation
this achieves the effect that strings not in the data set can be generated in a linguistically useful way but also may have the side effect that rarer phoneme combinations m p f n ts etc are not be acquired an effect that is described
related research a number of results have been reported for inference of regular and context free grammars with evolutionary techniques e.g. by
in the special case where d contains ail strings of symbols over a finite alphabet i of length shorter than k a polynomial time algorithm can be found but if even a small fraction of examples is missing the problem is again
before determining the referents of noun phrases sentences were at first transformed into a case structure by the case structure analyzer
first our system estimates the referential property of a noun phrase by using the method described in one of our previous papers
powers reports one word with around NUM different parses
at the semantic level it supports our denial of the powers NUM unsupervised clustering segmentation and cohesion david reconciliation of unsupervised clustering segmentation and cohesion
depend for their hierarchical organization on a fuzzy approach to segments
computational models of referring such as and being based on the view of language as goal directed behavior assume that the act of referring includes making the hearer recognize the speaker s communicative goal
automatically extracted collocations are judged by a lexicographer
a small set of sample results are presented
the similarity measure simwn is based on the proposal
applied a machine learning technique to anaphora resolution in written texts
we applied a machine learned resolver to agent case ellipses
mitkov describes an approach that uses a set of factors as constraints and preferences
the approach of interpretation as abduction used in aims to recover the premises and inferential links which lead to the conclusion of some given argument
give details about the decision procedures for constraint parsing
level with respect to the jensen shannon divergence the best predictor of unseen events in our earlier experiments
the error corrector is a rule based and it corrects the mis tagged morphemes by considering the lexical patterns and the necessary contextual information
re studied to overcome the limitations of staffstical approaches by learning symbolic tagging rules automatically from a
these unseen events generally make up a substantial portion of novel data for example report that NUM of the test set bigrams in a NUM NUM split of one million words did not occur in the training partition
hints uses the fact extractor fe developed by peter wallis and his team e.g.
we had previously estimated the referential properties of noun phrases that correspond to articles by using clue words in the sentences
we previously estimated the referential properties of noun phrases that correspond to articles for the translation of japanese noun phrases into english
NUM augmenting the methods the approach used by is only semi automatic and was n t originally conceived as a learning system
words which trigger themselves tasks we adopt the simple mutual information approach used
related effects for words are reported
often laughs the man strongly prefer local links i.e.
the with the initial development of the penman generator
null due to overconfidence people tend to exaggerate the probability of very likely events and the improbability of very unlikely events
NUM the three i s consider the following telephone dialogue taken from the atr emmi corpus
similar considerations have been expressed by on microplanning one of the tasks of the sentence planner is sentence content delimitation
in the present system a statistical parser is used simply as a tagger
we first built a master list of english prepositions from several websters website and then created a sublist of only spatial prepositions based on the judgments of three native english speakers two of whom were linguistically trained and one who was not
thus our approach has been to build our test suite relying on extensive pre existing linguistically motivated spatial language research e.g.
our statistical tagging model is adjusted from standard bi grams using the viterbi search plus on the fly extra computing of lexical probabilities for unknown morphemes
report on a essentially non statistical approach that relies on salience measures derived from syntactic structure and a dynamic model of attentional state
the authors would like to thank mark johnson and other members of the brown nlp group for many useful ideas and nsf and onr for support nsf grants iri NUM and sbr9720368 onr grant n0014 NUM NUM NUM
does a detailed study on factors in anaphora resolution NUM
but most of them have been neither efficient nor practical enough
an important question posed by is the granularity of the fine grained units in the plan
NUM introduction in this paper we present one of the most significant system architectural results relevant for nlg achieved within the komet pave multimedia page generation
the resolution of deictic proposes instead of analyzing temporal relation to solve the problem of parallel gestures by incrementally parsing and resolving deictic expressions
full details of the ga can be found in
some systems even perform the pos tagging as part of a syntactic analysis
approach works by finding the groups of segments which have the largest cosets and thus have high frequency and low information their information content tending to be more syntactic than semantic
this example is adapted from
iv a text planner that is based on rst rhetorical structure theory
the annotator is to be associated to a summarizer
our experiments were conducted with data made available through the penn treebank annotation effort
rqfol has been used for representing the meaning of natural language queries involving complex referring expressions webber1983 woods1983
consider as an example the syllable statistics from the german part of the lexical database celex shown in figure NUM
in fact the assumption that all productions are at most binary is not extraordinary since tabular parsers that construct complete parse forests in worst case o n NUM time explicitly or implicitly convert their grammars into binary branching
we plan to use the penn treebank corpus in collecting this data
with regard to the problem of standardisation this solution is very unsatisfiable as mapping between schemes is often impossible if schemes do not have a common ground like the slsa scheme that models feedback and own communication management and the al paron scheme van vark and de vreught1996 with the primary objective to analyze the previously mentioned dialogues to model information transfer
the participating sites of the eu sponsored project mate multi level annotation tools engineering reviewed the world wide approaches available schemes and tools on spoken dialogue annotation isard et ai NUM
it is based on modal logic and owes much to
to evaluate our method we carried out experiments using a corpus of news articles from a japanese economics
we defined six types of sentence ending cues and marked a sentence according to whether it contains a part icular
a system developed by johanna moore and her colleagues at the university of pittsburg takes the data from sage a graphics presentation system and produces an accompanying natural language caption mittal et al in press
i although donneuan did not address uses of indefirdte descriptions following kronfeld1990 we apply dorme ian s distinction to them as well
also to be precise we are interested in what kronfeld1986 kronfeld1990 terms the modal aspect of donnellan s distinction
as point out in a real world task based evaluation of mt systems or language learners the measure of interest is the correct and incorrect consequences of our users actions based on their understanding of a foreign language text document
the data set was generated with the finite state automaton used by to represent the phonotactics of reduced german syllables shown in figure NUM double circles indicate final states
this notion has been explored by cornell s group to design a summarizer that traces inter paragraph relationships and selects the best connected paragraphs for the summary
results concerning the inference of stochastic grammars with genetic algorithms have been described by describe
on the other hand this enables us to use sources other than the partwhole relation idas or the spatial inclusion relation for the generation of the navigational part of the referring expression
have to select appropriate expressions in different modes texts graphics and animations and to coordinate them NUM
during belief updating in the user model multiplicatire factors are incorporated into the bayesian update to model the human cognitive weaknesses of belief bias overconfidence and the base rate fallacy for a fuller description see
specifically the fundamental rule of chart which combines an incomplete edge a a bfl with a complete edge b NUM to yield the edge a ab
alternatively it may be that because our fom causes our parser to prefer edges with a high inside times estimated outside probability it is in fact partially mim null icking goodman labelled recall parsing algorithm which does not return the highest probability parse but attempts to maximize labeled bracket recall with the test set
the choice to use sentences as the unit of distance is motivated by our intention to incorporate triggers of this form into a probabilistie treebank based parser and tagger such as
the corpus a subset s of the atr lancaster general english treebank consists of a sequence of sentences which have been tagged and parsed by human experts in terms of the atr english grammar a broad coverage grammar of english with a high level of analytic detail
within the field of language modelling for speech recognition maintaining a cache of words that have occurred so far within a document and using this information to alter probabilities of occurrence of particular choices for the word being predicted has proved a winning strategy
crucially for our experiments see below the idea NUM informing the selection documents for inclusion in the treebank was to pack into it the maximum degree of document variation along many different scales document length subject area style point of view etc but without establishing a single predetermined classification of the included documents
investigated several plausible approaches to the selection function but were unable to find significant differences among them
the s scheme is that it directly associates discourse relations with explicit surface cues eg
we use the same weights for these operations as in the nist asr evaluation NUM
the iterative scaling algorithm applied for the parameter estimation of maximum entropy models computes a set of feature weights as which ensure that the model fits the reference distribution and does not make spurious assumptions as required by the maximum entropy principle about events beyond the reference distribution
do n t report on the number of features utilized by their model and do n t describe their approach to feature selection but judging by the time their system was trained NUM minutes NUM it did not aim to produce the best performing feature set but estimated a given one
when we regard the rule schemata as a set of rewriting rules in cfg this algorithm is exactly the same as the thompson s and similar to
NUM a fuzzy relation for representing the link grammar has introduced fuzzy sets the interest in fuzzy modeling has increased steadily
charniak gives a thorough explanation of the equations for an hmm model and describes an hmm tagging system in detail
other methods include rule based maximum entropy and memory based models
if this information is known or can be predicted accurately from the history of a given document being processed then model interpolation techniques could be employed we anticipate to exploit this to useful effect
trigger pair modelling research has been pursued within the field of language modelling for speech recognition over the last decade della
models using trigger pairs of words i.e. pairs consisting of a triggering word which has already occurred in the document being processed plus a specific triggered word whose probability of occurrence as the next word of the document needs to be estimated have yielded perplexity NUM reductions of NUM NUM over the baseline trigram model for a NUM million word wall street journal training
finally the euclidean distance is quadratic in verbs outside vat indeed note that it is extremely sensitive to the effect of one or more outliers pg
existing translations contain more solutions to more translation problems than any other
the principle of planarity states that links in a linkage must not cross i comment that most sentences of most languages adhere to that principle
an additional advantage of link grammar is that there exists an efficient parsing algorithm whereas there does not seem to exist one for dependency grammar
there already exist two approaches to learning with a link grammar formalism delia
examples of the types of relations that nitrogen handles are semantic agent patient domain range source destination spatial locating this input is a labeled directed graph or feature structure that encodes relationships between entities a a2 and t concept names are enclosed in vertical bars we use an automated form of wordnet
the theoretical o NUM and o logn access times which we are familiar with in computer science are however not physically sustainable powers NUM
as zipf also knew the number of distinct also plays a role and zipf himself found that the number of meanings decreased with the square p75
the effect is not found in more formal material and is attributed by zipf to an expansion of the dosed class vocabulary to include p122
NUM tagging a corpus with discourse relations in tagging a corpus s scheme for organizing discourse relations table NUM
however the problem of finding a minimal grammar consistent with a given sample d was shown to be
elman found that when a recurrent net was trained on letter sequences consisting of concatenated words its prediction error tended to decrease from beginning to end of each word
one well known o n NUM parsing is chart parsing
early suggested the use of the chart agenda for this purpose
to model the information content of utterances we use the notions central concept cc and newlnfo ni
to further enhance our representation we could use speech act tags generated by an automatic speech act classifier and attach these to the short clauses
the measure is known as the dice coefficient ture takes y if a sentence contains one or more cues relevant to distinguishing between the two relation types
another feature is that unlike rhetorical structure theory the scheme assumes a discourse relation to be a local one which is defined strictly over two consecutive sentences
in contrast to we did not consider relation cues reported in the linguistics literature since they would be useless unless they contribute to reducing the cue entropy
in another approach pre defined summary templates were filled with text elements obtained using information extraction techniques
in both cases the probabilistic version of the grammar lafferty are used and the word pairs plus their probabilities are inferred from a corpus by an em algorithrn
proceedings of eacl NUM statistical methods proposed for the word sense disambiguation
second we wanted to see what happened to the unambiguous path readings given that the mt engine needed only a lexical pattern recognition to detect the english verb preposition combination and then follow the well documented conversion to
the results of these automatic translations were then compared to the human translator s NUM spelled out this notion of good enough mt has introduced a clever method to test this
as reported in a previous paper kerpedjiev et a1 NUM we are investigating the integration of two complementary approaches to automatic generation of presentations hierarchical planning to achieve communicative goals and task based graphic design
these media independent goals are achieved by media independent il iocutionary actions searle1970 e.g. assert and recommend which themselves are decomposed into media independent actions that correspond to attributive and referential uses of descriptions
previous integrated text and graphi c generation systems e.g. fasciano and lapalme1996 feiner and mckeown1991 maybury1991 wahlster et a1 NUM have not attempted to perform task based design of graphics as in our
o sj c y s e tz l t e lcb ps sj l o c i y
NUM NUM NUM a a NUM NUM x sj t NUM c theme b l
i c l NUM NUM b ts f i k lcb NUM b5
in contrast to where at most one descriptor set is computed which distinguishes the referent from all other objects in the contrast set our algorithm computes all minimal descriptor sets
also the euro wordnet project is currently underway in building wordnet resources for other european languages
we tried using the log probabilities of target subsequences given source subsequences cf as a cost function instead of c but c resulted in better performance of our translation models
takes an axiomatic approach to determining the characteristics of a good similarity measure
many methods of solving the homophone problem have been proposed
step5 pick the highest strength est wh ej among 5as in this paper the addition of a small value is an easy and effective way to avoid the unsatisfactory case as shown
visualisation can be requested for various output formats including ascii text format tk canvas widget tex output and clig output
appelt and kronfeld1987 provides a formal theory that derives the effects of referring actions
much of the corpus based work on attaching prepositions has dealt with the subset of category vnpn problems where the preposition actually attaches to either the nearest verb or noun group on the left
by core phrases we mean the kind of non recursive simplifications of the np and vp that in the literature go by names such as noun verb groups or chunks and base nps
for examples of how different communicative intentions can be distinguished in graphics see green et a1 NUM NUM
in particular the decision list is valid for the homophone
observe that for two potential mutual translations x and y the fact that x occurs with translation y indicates association x s occurring with a translation other than y decreases one s belief in their association but the absence of both x and y yields no information
null we consider here the question of how to estimate the conditional cooccurrence probability p v n of an unseen word pair n v drawn from some finite set n x v two state of the art technologies backoff method and jelinek interpolation method
we focus on distributional rather than semantic similarity because the goal of distance weighted averaging is to smooth probability distributions although the words chance and probability are synonyms the former may not be a good model for predicting what cooccurrences the latter is likely to participate in
our similarity measure is based on a proposal where the similarity between two objects is defined to be the amount of information contained in the commonality between the objects divided by the amount of information in the descriptions of the objects
belief bias is the assessment of an inference as being stronger weaker than it is normatively because it supports undermines an existing
the grammar we used is an underspecified japanese hpsg grammar consisting of NUM id schemata and NUM lexical entries assigned to functional words and NUM lexical entry templates assigned to parts of speech this grammar has wide coverage and high accuracy for real world texts s
walker points out the effect of attentional focus on discourse comprehension
a more elaborate definition of dependency structures and ps defines two more dimensions a feature graph mapped off the dependency tree much like the and a conceptual representation based on terminological logic linking content words with reference objects and dependencies with conceptual roles
to illustrate the functionality of hdrug we use bob carpenter and gerald penn s ale
illocutionary acts and goals is described in green et a1 NUM
performance is usually no better than the statistical
instead we adopted brill s to auto
linear indexed are a restricted form of indexed grammars in which the index stack of at most one body non terminal the child is related with the stack of the head non terminal the father
in brief on the restricted vnp problem our procedure achieves nearly the same level of test set performance NUM NUM as current state of the art systems NUM NUM
set it2 is the data used in and has about NUM entries
we envisage that the model also serves as a basis for integrating nlg research into speech synthesis
complex dynamic behavior explanations plant worbd is a self explaining 3d environment in the domain of plant anatomy and physiology that generates multimodal explanations of dynamic three dimensional physiological phenomena such as nutrient transport figure NUM
experimentation with cinespeak is underway in conjunction with self explaining environments that are being designed to produce language of spatial and dynamic phenomena complex spatial explanations physviz towns is a self explaining 3d environment in the domain of physics that generates multimodal explanations of three dimensional electromagnetic fields force and electric currents in re null altime figure i
in some languages such as german e.g. in the analysis from shown in figure NUM only peak and coda constrain each other while in other languages such as russia n1490906
variations of the value difference metric have been employed for supervised disambiguation ng but it is not reasonable in language modeling to expect training data tagged with correct probabilities
d lin also found that the choice of similarity function can affect the quality of automatically constructed thesauri to a and the ability to determine common morphological roots by as much as NUM
we use activation with spreading from the salient objects which are clamped to determine the focus of attention
thus for morphology and syntax the existence of such comprehensive grammars of english as allows a quick round up of the major parameters
boas exemplifies the broad coverage descriptive approach to nlp see for instance and adds to it a complementary new commitment to developing and using automated field linguistic methodology cf
other lexicalized grammars collapse syntactic and ordering information and are forced to represent ordering alternatives by lexical ambiguity most notable l tag and some versions of
smith NUM learning feature value grammars learning feature value grammars from plain text
argues that features correspond to semantic properties associated with thematic categories e.g.
NUM using 2sa to parse ligs indexed are an extension of context free grammars in which a stack of indices is associated with each non terminal symbol
fuf surge elhadad and robin1996
NUM NUM searches the penn treebank for data samples that they can handle
in pioneering identified two sets of phrases bonus phrases and stigma phrases that tend to signal when a sentence is a likely candidate for inclusion in a summary and when it is definitely not a candidate respectively
this architecture is inspired by the work on meta planning
we outline the results of the comparison of the reviewed coding schemes based on and discuss best practice techniques for annotation of mass data on the level of dialogue acts
for further information on coding procedures we want to refer to and for good examples of coding books see for example or thym gobbel and levin1998
some experiments considering phonotactics modelling with srns have been carried
the neural was trained to study the phonotactics of a large dutch word corpus
of the architecture the basic development of the architecture was done over nearly by the contractors architecture working group cawg with three day technical meetings about once a month
the formalism used for tagging transformation based error driven tagger NUM
cal knowledge in a natural language generator
this proposed work incorporates propositional and analog representation as suggested by
when anticipating an argument s effect upon a user nag takes into account three cognitive errors that humans frequently succumb to belief bias overconfidence and the base rate fallacy
this is because we are trying to anticipate the effect of the information being presented on the addressee and information presented earlier will fade from the addressee s focus of attention
content planning times slowed down when extremely slow decay factors and low activation thresholds were used 3an alternative approach t o combining probabilistic pruning and semantic suppression is described in
NUM flag diacritics are defined like any other multicharacter symbols in a lexc but they are always bounded by signs to give them a distinctive orthography that can be recognized automatically by the lookup routines
verb endings noun endings direct object clitic suffixes etc are grouped together into sublexicons and each individual morpheme is assigned a continuation class which designates which subclasses of morphemes can follow it in a valid
the theory and practical use of finite state variation rules are well and will not be dealt with here
this idea is closely related to the notion of embedded push down NUM NUM
we apply the corpus encoding standard ces which is an application of sgml and provides guidelines for encoding corpora that are used in language engineering applications
hamming type are intended for data with symbolic features since they count feature label mismatches whereas we are dealing feature values that are probabilities
if the base language model probabilities obey certain bayesian consistency conditions as is the case for relative frequencies then we may write the confusion probability as follows
that is the data consisted of the verb object associated press newswire involving the NUM most frequent nouns extracted and yarowsky s processing tools
this approach was used in a small scale word sense disambiguation experiment
bss proposed in for decomposable models
in searching for a connectionist paradigm capable of natural language processing many researchers have explored the simple recurrent network srn
it is based on the generally held notion that syntactic agreement and morphological inflection are closely and
our morphological analysis follows general three morpheme segmentation original morpheme recovery from spelling changes and morphotactics modeling
the usual way of unknown morpheme handling before was to guess possible pos s for an unknown morpheme by checking connectable this project was supported by kosef
the same dichotomy also exists in the different tabular algorithms that has been proposed for specific parsing strategies with complexity ranging from o n NUM for bottom up strategies to o n NUM for prefix valid top down strategies with the exception of a o n NUM tabular interpretation of a prefix valid hybrid
a striking example of this is the cab problem described in
describe in detail the close relationship between the cky algorithm the earley algorithm and a bottom up variant of the earley algorithm
beam search parsing procedure produces higher accuracy results than our pcfg model and achieves this with a beam width of NUM
a standard ppmc model was inferred from the training corpus and used to segment the chunking
NUM segmentation is a matter of chunking the data whenever the instantaneous entropy exceeds some threshold
the most common chunk was then added to the alphabet of the ppmc model in a process we refer to as the
we examine these issues in the virtual computer bares a habitable 3d learning environment for the domain of introductory computer architecture
before referents are determined sentences are transformed into a case structure by the case structure analyzer
damsl allen and core1997 for instance is a scheme that implements a four dimensional hierarchy
ron kaplan had the idea that the proof construction which we used in might be useful for other purposes
concepts are presented to the user through diagrammatic trees with natural language labels
approach works on the insight that within a unit particularly a closed class functional unit such as an affix there is less freedom of choice than at the boundary of units
present an approach to an automatically trainable anaphora resolution system
the cosine metric and jaccard s coefficient are commonly used in information retrieval as measures of association
extended constraint parsing to the analysis of word lattices instead of linear sequences of words
the principles governing the combinations of these symbols is called
these issues are illustrated with examples from the cops robbers world bares gr a 3d interactive fiction testbed
the next section describes their work in more detail besides c c the work that is most directly comparable to ours is
machine learning algorithm has also been attempted to solve some g a first person singular first person plural second person singular second person plural person s n general anaphoric discourse processing problems for example in discourse segment boundaries or discourse cue words
words other NUM exophoric information NUM which attempted to discuss pruning effects on the decision tree no more conclusions are expected other than a trade off between recall and precision
several studies show that using as much as tagged corpora for training gives much better sprovided from etri pattern dictionary performance than unsupervised training using baum welch
powers allowed one or two or in some experiments three given or induced units to operate as a putative unit for the purposes of distributional analysis
the demonstrated both learning of classes and hierarchical rules from the character level up to the level of simple noun phrases and simple clauses
both y and space were identified as vowels using certain clustering techniques and methods and the issues are discussed in that paper
the specific approach we are using in our current work is to extend the structure determined by a version of the which produces binary grammar rules
previous work on natural language reference in multimedia generation andre and rist1994 mckeown et a1 NUM has focused on coordination of pictoria and textual referencesto concrete objectsand to actions to be performed o ghe objects and on generating references to the presentation itself
donnellan1977 describes two different possible uses of definite descriptions NUM an attributive description s main function is to convey information directly contributing to the communicative goals of a discourse whereas a referential description s only function is to enable the audience to identify a particular referent
for that problem some statistical methods have been applied and
tin the tasks of intelligent multimedia representation systems are discussed in a uniform terminology
use different labels for links that can occur in more than one position e.g.
it has been argued that similarity plays an important role in word
topical associations are based on chaining the current newinfo as the next cc and selecting the next ni according to the topic shifting rules described in
2ward discusses the reflexive nature of backchannels and demonstrates how they can be generated in a highly interactive system relying only on acoustic features like the pitch and the length of pauses
the listener signals her understanding of what is being said by explicit or implicit feedback NUM and she may even co produce utterance
the other is a parser for an ale style grammar
efficient treatment of tfss by an abstract machine
one classical approach to resolving pronouns in text that takes some syntactic factors into consideration is
this includes NUM discourse planning as provided by the knight explanation planner NUM sentence construction as provided by the the fare sentence planner and the revisor clause aggregator and NUM surface generation as provided
in collaboration with the steve virtual environments tutor project at usc isi we have begun to design nlg techniques for embodied explanation generation in which the avatar agent generates coordinated utterances delivered with a speech synthesizer and gestural and locomotive behaviors as it manipulates various devices in the world
patterns for morphemes are collected from the previous where the constraints of korean syllable patterns as to the morpheme connectabilities are well described
the morphemes NUM sentence is from korean standard document collection set called ktset NUM NUM s and contains academic articles and electronic newspapers
the training is so the error correcting rules are gradually learned as the statistical tagged texts are corrected by the rules learned so far
two systems that can turn an existing fully explicit argument into an enthymematic one are described
2trec NUM database consisted of approx NUM gbytes of documents from associated press newswire wall street journal financial times federal register fbis and other sources
we have chosen bns for this purpose because of their ability to represent normatively correct reasoning under uncertainty and because simple alterations of the normal bayesian propagation rules allow us to model various human cognitive phenomena
the transduction search algorithm we use to apply the translation model is a bottom up dynamic programruing algorithm similar to the analysis algorithm for relational head acceptors
language specific knowledge is stored in a linguistic lexicon and used b y an incremental surface realiser sr say of the type described in
NUM in this paper we present our pilot work i defining and constructing a semantic domain of spatial expressions as a test suite ii testing our mt system on the the term embedded mt system adopted from refers to a computer system with several software components including an mt engine
goldsmith p 107if lists several examples from different languages
in and pereira et al
our source for syntactically annotated training data was the penn treebank
schifferdecker has successfully used the technique to produce phonemes from raw speech data as well as from raw phonetic transcriptions although this work did not explore the hierarchical aspects of the technique except as a consequence of dendritic representation of the classification space
performed experiments in the context of grammat checking application using automatic segmentation techniques based on those of harris i NUM and similar to those but combined with context conditioned probabilities which were used to decide between confusable words
uses a general purpose lexicon to learn affix and word ending information to be used in tagging unknown words
entropy used in some part of speech tagging is a measure of how much information is necessary to separate data
trec NUM therefore marks a shift in our approach away from text representation issues and towards query development problems
learning a lexicalised grammar for german
the idea is similar to that used in the centering approach where a continued topic is the highest ranked candidate for pronominalization
they use japanese newspaper articles tagged with discourse information as training examples for a machine learning algorithm which is the c4 NUM decision tree
the approach is only intended to identify typing errors and substitution errors e.g.
the same technique has been applied in a loebner prize entry by
generalizes the approach and considers a multitude of different clustering metrics and methods introducing a pair of goodness measures which allow a more principled approach to closing and evaluating clusters rather than closing at a specific cluster you close when the goodness measure reaches its first local maximum
experiments classes were added as new units and the process was repeated
also reports work in which hyphenation points were marked thus introducing an element of supervision but it did not improve performance which agained suffered from ambiguity and thus did n t produce definite results being non probabilistie although a greedy algorithm performed quite reasonably
we are generalizing the approach of identifying a class such as the vowels and then identifying those units such as y which atypically have a larger coset than the class which has been selected as having maximal coverage dilemma in favor of coverage as the preferred metric
a parser operating on the model structures is described in
meaning text theory assumes seven strata of representation
the bootstrap sampling method provides a way for artificially establishing a sampling distribution for a statistic when the distribution is not
bayesian network optimized or otherwise see for example is an np hard problem in the general
to cope with both of these limits on complexity we emulate the principal means available to humans for applying limited cognitive capacity to problem solving namely attention see for
xerox applications have traditionally intersected all the role transducers into a single transducer and because the lexicon also compiles into a transducer it can be composed together with the rules into a single data object called a lexlcal trans ducer
arabic and other semitic languages are most notable for having a partially non concatenative morphotactics wherein stems are formed by the interdigitation of roots and patterns a process naturally formalized in finite state morphology as intersection
and have added nonapproximability results of varying strength
one previously explored approach e.g. ono was to extract discourse structure elements and then generate the summary within this structure
one way to convert a pcfg into this form is left factoring
belief updating in both the user and the normative model is done by a constrained bayesian propagation scheme sec mcconachy korb and zukerman NUM a bayesian approach to automating argumentation richard mcconachy kevin b korb a bayesian approach to automating argumentation
however by adapting an idea we replace rule NUM by the alternate and equivalent rule NUM bdeg b edeg c e rcb
introduced nitrogen a system that implements a new style of generation in which corpus based ngram statistics are used in place of deep extensive symbolic knowledge to provide very large scale generation lexicons and knowledge bases on the order of NUM NUM entities and simultaneously simplify the input and improve robustness for sentence generation
the link grammar formalism is similar to in that both of them model connections between single words
many researchers in natural language processing e.g. moore1995 have modeled presentation design as a process of hierarchical planning to achieve communicative goal s
elhadad1992 describes a representation scheme for specifying complex noun phrases in which a set can be described either by its extension or intension
these rules can either be extracted automatically from a or written manually
some systems exploit additional information as descriptors such as the information on complex objects and their components idas or the spatial inclusion relation
the proposed characteristic component algorithm computes a set of descriptors which enable 3the problem can be transformed into the problem to find the minimal size set cover which is proven to be np haxd
coordination between text and page NUM however the characteristic component algorithm considers only the components which are located on other sides but not the components which are located on the same side
our intuitive explanation for this result is that lazy learning techniques keep all training items whereas greedy approaches lose useful information by forgetting low frequency or exceptional instances of the task not covered by the extracted rules or
bobrow and introduced best first pcfg parsing the approach taken here
in drafter ii which we will demonstrate here the domain model and the generator are implemented in prolog while the interface is
an obvious first extention to this work for the case of tags will be to incorporate the triggers into a maximum entropy model using trigger pairs in addition to unigram bigram and trigram constraints
the information of a symbol w with respect to a statistical model m and a context s is defined in equation NUM intuitively we may think of the information as the surprise the model experiences upon receipt of the symbol w it is low if the model s expectations are vindicated high if they are erroneous
furthermore when a more sophisticated version of this model NUM was applied in conjunction with the sphinx ii speech recognition system a NUM NUM reduction in word error rate
null the statistical tagger runs the viterbi on the morpheme graph for searching the optimal tag sequence for pos disambiguation
we also plan to evaluate skewed versions of the jensen shannon divergence
an efficient communication scheme for messages including typed feature structures tfss
the described method is similar in spirit to the method of word trigger incorporation to a trigram model suggested if a trigram predicts well enough there is no need for an additional trigger
the newly added feature should improve the model its kullback leibler divergence from the reference distribution should decrease and the conditional maximum entropy model will also have the greatest log likelihood l value the basic feature induction algorithm presented in della starts with an empty feature space and iterativety tries all possible feature candidates
to make feature ranking computationally tractable in della and a simplified process proposed at the feature ranking stage when adding a new feature to the model all previously computed parameters are kept fixed and thus we have to fit only one new constraint imposed by the candidate feature
if we applied the suggestion and cut out on the basis of the joint frequency we would lose the negative evidence which is quite reliable judging by the total frequency of the observation
the algorithm is described by yet it must be modified to account for the changes in the link grammar formalism necessary to describe german NUM
the process of converting acts of the plan to tasks is partly described in kerpedjiev et a1 NUM and is beyond the scope of this paper NUM
appelt mentions the case of the speaker pointing at some implement and saying use the wheelpuller
the second strand involves the aggregation module implemented by hua cheng
note that zipf associates the top downward concavity with informal p82 an association which had been recognized by other
in building a statistical parser for the penn tree bank various statlstics have been two of which are p w lh t l and p w lt l
the likelihood ratio is page NUM and uses the raw frequencies of each pronoun class in the corpus as the null hypothesis pr gc0i as well as pr ref e gci from equation NUM
feature unification notation as in d patr has been proposed and even implemented in a number of morphology systems for constraining morphotactic
detailed examples of the process of authoring instructional texts with wysiwym are also provided in scott and power
word features are introduced primarily to help with unknown words as in
for example the well alternation the city council refused to give the women a permit because they lcb feared advocated rcb violence
for example bilingual lexicographers can use bitexts to discover new cross language lexicalization patterns catizone students of foreign languages can use one half of a bitext to practice their reading skills referring to the other half for translation when they get stuck nerbonne et al
we also do not require a newly added feature to be either atomic or a collocation of an atomic feature with a feature already included into the model as it was proposed in della
the simplest period space capital letter approach works well for simple texts but is rather unreliable for texts with many proper names and abbreviations at the end of sentence as for instance the wall street journal wsj corpus
using the odds likelihood ratio with the additional multiplicative factors as described above we obtain the following update formula
the determination of pn and pv is via deleted interpolation NUM
have also addressed the lexical selection problem from the tl point of view
a solution which offers better omputational complexity is based on the premise that some fact types are better suited as restrictive modifiers than others and thus restrictive modifiers are chosen by incrementally taking the next modifier from the list e.g.
ing g k h NUM NUM NUM NUM NUM g lcb k t lcb p NUM c lcb bto
a similar difficulty was noted by for their nl task which required recurrent networks to classify sentences as either grammatical or ungrammatical
an example set of tags can be found in the penn treebank project
in our training method we follow the simple lexical head transduction model which can be regarded as a type of statistical dependency grammar trans null duction
one can imagine the same techniques coupled with more informative probability distributions such as lexicalized or even grammars not based upon literal rules but probability distributions that describe how rules are built up from smaller
brandow that simply selecting the first paragraph from a document tends to produce better summaries than a sentence based algorithm
recent advances in stochastic language modeling however have made it possible to incorporate statistical information into and thus giving access to the complexity estimates now widely regarded as essential for automatically learning adequate grammars from positive data alone
kronfeld1986 kronfeld1990 distinguishes three independent aspects of the referential attributive distinction discusses the significance of the distinction for a computational model of reference and describes how attributive descriptions may result in conversational implicatures grice1975
to achieve the effect of this action the text and graphics generators are free to select an3 device that will enable the user to identify the object subject to pragmatically appropriate identification constraints appelt and kronfeld1987
an attributive description s main function is to convey information directly contributing to the communicative goals of a discourse whereas a referential description s only function is to enable the audience to identify a particular referent donnellan1977 kronfeld1986
also reports a result of NUM NUM for a word only version of the system that we extend difference with our result is statistically significant at the NUM level
presents the vnpn example phrase saw the man with a telescope where attaching the preposition incorrectly can still result in NUM NUM of NUM recall NUM precision and no crossing brackets
this result is just a little behind the current best result of NUM NUM using a binomial distribution test the difference is statistically significant at the NUM level
one attempts to select the smallest subset of modifiers which uniquely refers
the design of penman is in many respects a systemic functional one see for the systemic conception of text generation that is the system is based on a theoretical model of language developed within systemic functional linguistics eg
weischedel s group examines unknown words in the context of part of speech tagging
to offer a more valid comparison between this work and mikheev s latest the accuracies were tested again ignoring mistags between nn and nnp common and proper nouns as mikheev did
NUM we are creating a single interface for the mt system and the language sustainment tools that enables users to guide their own learning during mt aided tasks such as filtering in contrast to single purpose tutoring systems e.g. NUM for others addressing multiple uses of linguistic resources
in general the likelihood of a head dependent relation decreases as distance
in previous work we compared the performance of three different functions the jensen shannon divergence total divergence to the average the l1 norm and the confusion probability
the dice coej cient is monotonic in jaccard s coefficient so its inclusion in our experiments would be redundant
finally kendall s which appears in work on clustering similar adjectives is a nonparametric measure of the association between random
about whether the byte length model by itself can perform well
describe a bayesian plan recognition system that uses marker passing as a method of focusing attention on a manageable portion of the space of all possible plans
for example the context free description can be addressed with solutions borrowed from work in learning pcfgs and the distribution can be estimated by training on sample
sequence of characters along a path in the trie is collapsed into a single node resulting in a wst for which all leaf nodes are common suffixes to the prefix terminated by their parent
aug encodes lexical properties as feature structures specifying such things as part of speech number tense person thematic role etc whose values percolate up through a subsumption hierarchy by the process of
unification grammars ugs have become the established formalism for natural language understanding systems primarily because of their clean denotational semantics and their ability to capture complex grammatical constraints through feature dependencies
this method was first implemented in draftelz ii a re engineered version of drafter which is designed for use by the technical authors who produce software documentation
refer to van for further information of this programme
for example figure NUM shows a simplified version of the presentation operator that would be used to generate NUM above in the formalism used by the presentation planner young1994
previous work on reference in sentence generation e.g. appelt1985 dale1992 dale and reiter1995 heeman and hirst1995 horacek1997 stone and doran1997 has not addressed the referential attributive distinction
for example the proposition plan constraint of the operator in figure NUM makes use of the rqfol representation of pl to extract information with which to instantiate the plan variables main predl and refsl with the main predication of pl and a list describing the discourse entities webber1983 evoked or accessed by use of main predl respectively
