ghz explain this as the result of interaction of the givenness hierarchy with the first part of the maxim of quantity make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange
this can be combined with the use of representative corpora in the cle rayner to allow only one representative of a particular pattern out of perhaps dozens in the corpus as a whole to be inspected
the examples given here are in fact all for englis h but the treebanker has also successfully been used for swedish and french customizations of the cle rayner
at one end of the spectrum there are mostly descriptive lists of definite description uses such as whose only goal is to assign a classification to all uses of definite descriptions
we will then say following sidner that a definite description cospecifies with its antecedent in a text when such antecedent exists if the definite description and its antecedent denote the same object
implements the bug algorithm as bugi in prolog
here a operator connects a word a variable in a template to a description connects the left and right sides of the entry v introduces a transfer macro which takes two descriptions as arguments and performs some additional transfer
the glue approach to semantic composition in lexical functional grammar uses linear logic to assemble meanings from syntactic analyses
in the general case of multiplicative inear logic there can be complex combinatorics in matching up positive and negative occurrences of literals which leads to
however there is a regular form for such that the trees of tags in this regular form are local sets that is they are context free
the erroneous recognition results were collected from an experimental base using the
although this can be considered a kind of partial parsing the sus obtained by isss are not always subsentential phrases they are sometimes full sentences
several approaches have statistically addressed the problem of prepositional phrase ambiguity with comparable results
this source is very important for repairs that do not have initial retracing and is the mainstay of the parser first approach e.g. heeman and allen modeling speakers keep trying alternative corrections until one of them parses
since speech repairs are often accompanied by bear the actual reparandum will better predict the words in the alteration of the repair
tacitu is a successful abductive system when provided with extensive praps n ic and linguistic knowledge
to remedy the limitation of bear dowding we proposed that the word correspondences between the reparandum and alteration could be found by a set of well formedness rules heeman
some types of annotation are systematically incommensurable with others thus disfluency and focus often cut across conversational turns and syntactic constituents
without taking into account the collocation network the methods described above rely on the same and
the second method exploits lexical cohesion to segment texts but in a different way
first the corpus is tagged tagger
methodology is used to obtain both the characterisation of style of our corpus and the division of the corpus into sets of linguistically similar texts
we are working with a set of core nlg task that we have found to be stable all of them occurred in almost all the systems we
represent lexical rules as tfss containing NUM and NUM attributes representing input and output descriptions of the lexical rule respectively
the interested reader is referred to for an introduction
our need for automatic transliteration mechanisms stems from a multilingual text generation system which we are currently constructing on the basis of an english language database containing descriptive information about museum objects the power system
an efficient optimization algorithm for lpz is the exchange algorithm
a detailed analysis of the complexity can be found in
it is many years since mandelbrot investigated the way in which the statistical structure of language is best adapted to coding
in principle a variety of constraints and preference heuristics including factors which rely on semantic pragmatic and world knowledge contribute to this task
the type hierarchy includes the phrase type
memory based learning is described in section NUM in order to make a fair comparison we evaluated our methods on the common benchmark dataset first used in ratnaparkhi reynar in section NUM the experiments with our method on this data are described
previous indicates that the two neighbors on the left and on the right i.e. the words in positions n NUM n NUM n NUM n NUM relative to word n are a good choice of context
another weighting function considered here is based on the who argues for a universal perceptual law in which the relevance of a previous stimulus for the generalization to a new stimulus is an exponentially decreasing function of its distance in a psychological space
for introduces a precondition action rule stating that if agent g wants to achieve proposition p and p is a precondition of an act act then g may want to perform act
because language processing tasks typically can only be described as a complex interaction of regularities subregularities and families of exceptions storing all empirical data as potentially useful in analogical extrapolation works better than extracting the main regularities and forgetting the individual
appl ed error driven transformation based learning ratnaparkhi applied a maximum entropy used a loglinear model and obtained good results using a back off model
the dialogue in figure NUM contains two subtask subdialogues the dialogue in figure NUM a and the dialogue in figure NUM two knowledge precondition subdialogues
we preprocess the similar sentences using an existing shallow and a mapping to predicate argument structure
have already used templates representing specific information in a restricted domain in order to generate indicative abstracts
such problems can be alleviated to some extent by constraining the source document e.g. through use of a controlled language
see for a little more discussion of this
feedback texts with menus have been used before in the nl menu system but only as a means of presenting syntactic options
the approach already has been successfully applied to a diagnosis task in foreign language learning environments
paice also notes that problems for this approach center around the fluency of the resulting summary
the temporal correspondence or in other words synchronization of these three types of media data is calculated with dp matching technique we have already
a deeper type of knowledge may be captured by the lexicon in lexical conceptual structure lcs
for instance in phonology human listeners perceive categorical distinctions between phonemes whereas acoustic measures vary continuously
the that repeated name coreference is far less common than pronominal coreference in a naturally occurring corpus suggests that our conjecture about the relative ease in terms of cognitive processes of establishing coreference for different types of sequences helps to understand how people use different forms of
in we find that this pattern of relative acceptabifity between the different types of sequences is shown for categorical judgments for ratings of grammaticality for isolated sentences for sentences in discourse context and for different types of unreduced expressions including names
an example of these types of sequences taken from is shown below along with the proportion of naive subjects college students at the university of north carolina who judged that it was grammatically acceptable for the expressions in bold face to refer to the same person
there has been quite a bit of previous work on the intersection of formal language theory and algebra as among others
the standard left corner grammar transformation rosenkrantz these references should be consulted for proofs of correctness
extending this top down parsing algorithm to a unification based grammar is straight forward and described in many textbooks such as
the semantic relations and clusters have been shown to be very effective knowledge sources for such nlp tasks and interpretation of
boosting and cross validated committees NUM combining different input NUM changing output representation e.g.
8however it has to be said that the pure statistical or machine learning based approaches to pos tagging still significantly underperform some sophisticated manually constructed systems such as the english shallow parser based on constraint grammars developed at the helsinki university
the viterbi algorithm described for instance in which n gram probabilities are substituted by the application of the corresponding decision trees allows the calculation of the most likely sequence of tags with a linear cost on the sequence length
the first five are described for instance in rlm is due to and finally relief f is described in
we used the ipal as a verb case frame dictionary
in the research field of the video contents retrieval although there are many researches etc few researches have been done to combine image and language media
possible solutions would include one proposed by uramoto in which idiomatic expressions are described separately in the database so that the system can control
developed an algorithm at ibm for the automatic forward transliteration of arabic personal names into the roman alphabet
as for accomplishments we can assume that they can be decomposed into several stages according to first a preparatory phase second a culmination or achievement we are not concerned here with the result state
it has been observed that even when concerned only with temporal localisation it is not enough to characterize tenses if one do not take into account the effects of discourse relations between eventualities NUM 1a b paul got fined
applies only to anaphors ambiguous from the point of view of number and gender i.e. to those tough anaphors which after activating the gender and number filters still have more than one candidate for antecedent and is indicative of the performance of the antecedent indicators
there have been many other attempts to process dictionary definitions using heuristic pattern matching e.g. specially constructed definition parsers e.g. and even general coverage syntactic parsers e.g.
for the most part anaphora resolution has focused on traditional linguistic methods
this however is not the NUM german orthography is used except for the phonemic writing of voiceless t 1degranking can be implemented along the
a more autosegmental treatment following the is also considered there and shown to be compatible with the results presented here
interestingly found that in discourses where a theme change was wen marked by other means e.g. by a preposed adverbial phrase or a subordinate clause indicating time or place that pronouns were much more common even though a new theme was begun
however found that feedback in order to be consulted has to be concise and precise
the analysis module is implemented in datr a language designed for pattern matching and representing multiple inheritance
the main work is done by a lfg parser originally implemented by avery andrews australian national university and now modified to suit the needs of error detection with the help of modified grammar processing including error rules
also proposed a method for choosing translations that solely relies on co occurrence statistics in the target language
the swbd conversations had already been handsegmented into utterances by the linguistic data consortium an utterance roughly corresponds to a sentence
rommetveit intersubjectivity is primarily concerned with perspective taking or perspectivization
the mdl minimum description length is a model selection criterion
essential to darwinian evolution is the concept of variational
leacock towell comparing performance of the bayesian classifier with a vector space model used in information retrieval systems salton and with a neural network found that the neural networks had superior performance
the window we use is slightly wider than a window of two words on either side that experiments with humans suggest is sufficient
sanderson found that resolving senses could degrade retrieval performance unless the disambiguation procedure was very accurate although he worked with large rich queries
al also use the dice model NUM NUM includes multi word units in one direction
this problem is resolved by grammar rewriting in the sense proposed
instead the cache model assumes the cache is sufficiently limited in size that everything in it is almost instantaneously NUM
however such an account would contradict the local nature of local attentional state and we have more recently denied it
we will also assume the general approach to anaphora resolution argued
ignoring this may give misleading results farach
and then tested on the accompanying NUM NUM word test treebank
the model we use is similar to that
the lack of syntactic information for instance means giving up c command constraints and subject preference or on other occasions object which could be used in center tracking
klavans j extracted morpho syntactic term variants for nlp tasks such as automatic indexing
we should note that the dtg parsing method of from which the current approach is derived is polynomial time
detailed explanation of the algorithm can be found while its application to nlp tasks advantages and drawbacks are addressed
similarly a simple automatic approach for linking spanish taxonomies extracted from dgile to wordnet synsets is proposed in
the texture resolution module trm we developed in connection with the facile project tries to identify the reference function that each np plays in a text anaphora generic reference specific reference iota unique reference predicative function and tries to guess possible cohesive ties
for the automatic generation of class systems exists a well known procedure see which maximizes the perplexity of the language model for a training corpus by moving one word from a class to another in an iterative procedure
the simple model NUM for the translation of a sl sentence d dl dt in a tl sentence e el em assumes that every tl word is generated independently as a mixture of the sl words
the authors explored relationships among patent text and the published research literature using a procedure which was reported as the chi research team examined the science references on the front pages of american patents looking at all the NUM NUM patents issued
strube provides a complete specification for dealing with complex sentences but this approach departs significantly from the centering model
macdow and the natural language database interface team grosz et al
NUM for a discussion regarding certain pairs of transitions and their relation to zero vs strong pronouns
grosz joshi define rule NUM of the centering model on the basis of sequences of transitions
our system uses both text statistics term frequency or t and corpus statistics inverse docmnent frequency or id to derive signature words as one of the summarization features
this is activated synchronously with the input in contrast with conventional sentence by sentence based translation which can not start processing until the end of an
after NUM training sessions the si and mi strategies affect the whole dialogue the presentation strategies apply locally and a for experiments in which local rewards are nonzero
we use the paradise framework to derive an empirically motivated performance function that combines both subjective user preferences and objective system performance measures into a single function
the measure simhinate is the same as the similarity measure proposed except that it does not use dependency triples with negative mutual information
one possible approach are choice nets see yang who interpret systemic grammar in this way
some of the early statistical terminology translation methods are
as briefly noted in section NUM the work described in and differs from our approach according to the usage of the decision tree in the resolution task
we modify the similarity measure proposed by into the following so
in this paper we apply the joshi and vijay shanker conception of compositional semantics to the problem of preserving semantic dependencies in synchronous tag translation abeill
rambow wier and vijay shanker point out the differences between tag derivation structures and semantic or predicate argument dependencies and joshi and vijay shanker describe a monotonic compositional semantics based on attachment order that represents the desired dependencies of a derivation without underspecifying predicate argument relationships at any stage
at worst an exponential number of combinations of the input elements need to be considered and the parse table may be of exponential size
hence for every context seed word i we assign a word weighting factor wi tfiw x idfi where tfiw is the tf of word i in the context of word w the updated vector space model of word w has wi in its i th dimension
using vector space model and similarity measures for ranking is a common approach in ir for query text and text text comparisons
the jacket which collected the dust 3node labels the object level tree names are given according to the xtag standard see appendix
the use of timing to represent constituents or more generally entities is the core idea of temporal synchrony variable binding
describe a method of using contextual clues such as appositives person the daughter of a prominent local physician and felicity conditions for identifying names
however rightly pointed out proper nouns and capitalized words are particularly problematic some capitalized words are proper nouns and some are not
as described in the shows that defining words are especially effective for disambiguating senses strongly associated
first all the documents are parsed using the apple pie parser which is a probabilistic chart parser developed by satoshi sekine
she further tried to use wordnet as a tool for word sense and applied it to text retrieval but the performance of retrieval was degraded
arg n x p tis arg n x p sit p t NUM p sit and p t are approximated as in equation NUM which has commonly been used in the recent statistical nlp research
we first explored the use of trigram model of supertag disambiguation in
considering connected routes during the parsing permits to take into account the topology of the elementary trees and to locate significative nodes for an
this corpora contains NUM utterances in french of transcribed spontaneous spoken language collected with a wizard of oz experiment
they suggest also that anaphora resolution is part of the discourse referents resolution
the algorithm for quadriliteral roots shown in figure NUM is an extension of the triliteral algorithm of
the dialogue act update definition in the linlin scheme where users provide information to the system dahlb ck and jsnsson1998 addressed to human machine dialogues
a check move requests the partner to confirm information that the speaker has some reason to believe but is not entirely sure about
the value carletta1996
training and testing were performed with an artmap icmm ann a variant of artmap ic specialized for data sets containing many to many mappings
one consequence of passivization is the conversion of one of the surface syntactic relations known as ssyntrels in mel uk s terminology see the discussion in mel p NUM
one statistical approach is to measure linguistic indicators over a
johnson discusses the improvement of pcfg models via the annotation of non local information onto non terminal nodes in the trees of the training corpus
with removing linear ordering from tree representations and formulating sequencing rules separately this was no longer considered a problem for dependency grammars moreover higher nodes as domains for rule application have been shown not to be necessary because they can equally well be formulated on words e.g. gapping rules can be formulated on
the critical points are removed by hudson s analysis with no contradictions remaining and he concludes that head is a grammatical category on a par with grammatical functions but more general allowing generalizations that can oth null erwise not be made cf
NUM NUM this description of a pip is only a rough though useful approximation to grosz formal definition
the interpretation of lexical rules is analogous to that of grammar rules and such rules can be thought of as equivalent to unary grammar rules
in the linear logic based semantics of scope ambiguities are accounted for in terms of alternative derivations of meaning assignments from a set of meaning constructors
this class includes hawkins s associative anaphoric definite descriptions and prince s inferrables as well as some definite descriptions that would be classified as anaphoric by hawkins and as textually
we ignore the issue of how the information represented at these types might be factored between supertypes to capture further generalizations concerning verb classes see for example NUM
the presence of such a large number of discourse new definite descriptions is also problematic for the idea that definite descriptions are interpreted with respect to the
to summarize the latter decline had the following components in their algorithm
knuth for an overview
we first show how the underlying machinery of the semantic based transfer approach developed in can be ported to syntactic f structure representations
a fully automatic could be used to extract terminology
surface case processing is used to help extract meaning by mapping surface cases to their corresponding conceptual cases
and computing the kappa statistic for such sets is a problem with a textbook solution
default inheritance has been widely exploited in lexical descriptions both within and outside the tfs framework e.g. daelemans de
it has been argued that the reliability of a coding schema can be assessed only on the basis of judgments made by naive
g p c t holds of an agent g a parameter description p an identification constraint c and a time t if g has a suitable description as determined by c of the object described as p at time t to formalize this relation we rely notion of an individuating set
in more traditional plan based approaches to natural language processing e.g. the work of cohen allen litman lambert reasoning about plans is focused on reasoning about actions
we perform this normalization in a manner similar to the idf part of tf
note that the analyses described in this section can not be performed on the two category data configuration in which the certainty ratings are not considered due to insufficient degrees of freedom
for our speech recognition results we used ogi s large vocabulary speech recognizer using acoustic models trained from the trains corpus
the distribution of noun phrase types identified by their part of speech sequence roughly obeys zipf s there is a large tail of noun phrase types that occur very infrequently in the corpus
however in enriching the argument structure information level expressed in hpsg as the restriction attribute and adapted here as argument structure argstr so that dand s args can be represented in addition to the strictly obligatory ones
8non intersective adjuncts can not be easily treated particularly those that contribute a new entity involved in the relation denoted by the predicate for some of them quite complex proposals have been developed within hpsg
taken from the harry gross financial planning dialogues
in what follows timely to think of the possibility of making the effort to converge trying to avoid unnecessary duplications and where possible building on what
it has been completely tagged with pos tags using the malaga
practical courses in natural language interfaces or computational semantics have used a toy database such as geographical database or an excerpt of a movie script as application domain
many systems e.g. the kernel system use these relationships as an intermediate form when determining the semantics of syntactically parsed text
NUM bots and the web bots are distinguished from other commonly used programs in that they act as if they have some degree of intelligence and
also rais ghasem ibid has employed such patterns to implement a metaphor understanding system that interprets metaphors as class inclusion assertions see
input to the system is a context presented as a number of input words and along with their syntactic categories and case markers
in this paper we redefine the functional cf ranking criteria by making reference to prince s work on the assumed familiarity of and
in addition an explicit relation to basic notions from speech act theory is also missing though it should be considered vital for the global coherence of discourse
moreover since more sophisticated systems can be viewed as refinements of the basic it seems reasonable to first attempt to better understand the properties of pcfg models themselves
for example i am currently using this methodology to study the interaction between tree structure and a slash category node labeling in tree representations with empty categories
1nucleus and satelipse are terms taken from rst rhetorical structure theory e.g. although usually applied to the relations between sentences
given a sequence of pos tags to be analyzed a dynamic programming method based on the cky algorithm is used to search for a maximum likelihood parse using this pcfg
this definition of alignment inspired from can be naturally extended to accommodate any number of versions of a text
for instance the space and time complexity of the trilingual version of the program would be o n3
ideally the tutoring program should impose exactly this ordering for those students that need
the generalization method we propose falls into the second category although it can also be used as a component in a combined scheme with many of the above methods see brill alshawi
ongoing work in the word alignment track of the arcade project is likely to bring interesting results regarding this question
as we remarked earlier however the input data required by our method triples could be generated automatically from unparsed corpora making use of existing although for the experiments we report here we used a parsed corpus
consequence connectives are inferential in the sense of
the second criterium is based on the observation by that good alignments usually coincide with high scoring regions of text
the textual metalanguage exemplified by the fully discursive formulations is part of the language and therefore open to description in terms of operatorargument
the feature we used in the clustering experiment is pdc peripheral direction contributivity which is one of the best features for japanese character recognition NUM we clustered the feature vectors for NUM japanese characters into NUM classes by using the lbg algorithm which is one of the most popular vector quantization methods
for a more systematic treatment for instance along the the upper model needs to be extended
the co training algorithm for classification works in cases where the feature space is separable into naturally redundant and independent parts
most such systems are examples ask users to read a prompt or narrowly constrain what the user is allowed to say
defines the notion of natural speech as properly equivalent to that of appropriate speech as not equivalent to unselfconscious speech
the relative positions of concepts within the concept
a relation hierarchy as presented is simply a way to establish an order between the possible relations
the clustering technique and a derived extended clustering technique are explained in much details in barri
this notion was somewhat altered in to more adequately reflect human generated referring ex null pressious and to be more computationally tractable
analyzed three naturally occurring dialogues to characterise language behavior of japanese in shopping situations between a shop assistant and two customers
nevill manning s text compression program sequitur can also identify word boundaries and gives a binary tree structure for an identified
NUM maximum tokenization the tokenization is a
as described in the em algorithm can be used to estimate the parameters of the model
its perplexity on the corpus of trans report a word error rate of NUM NUM on similar data
naive bayes classifiers have been found to be remarkably successful in many applications including word
although decision trees are not formal probability models there are similarities between decision tree induction and the model selection framework presented here
graphical models are the subset of log linear models in which the only kind of noninteraction is
NUM continue explanations we begin by mentioning the xtrgct tool by
the best path can easily be found by for example dijkstra s
proposes incremental translation that is based on marker passing memory based translation
provides further details of the algorithm for incremental cb parsing
our weighting method follows the qiu method except that qiu used it to expand terms only from a single automatically constructed thesarus and did not consider the use of more than one thesaurus
for problem NUM we use transliteration
j we built two types of exercises first we have a set of exercises whose correction consists of comparing the user s for a simple description
for causativity the same counting scripts were used for both groups of verbs but the input to the counting programs was determined by manual inspection of the corpus for verbs belonging to group NUM while it was extracted automatically from a parsed corpus for parsed with the parser
in the case where documents are in english tokenization involves eliminating stopwords and identifying root forms for inflected words for which we used word net
for detailed discussion of these structures see
for example the local context analysis lca method developed by the inquery group has been successfully used by other groups
the australian national university worked with hot spots of NUM characters surrounding the original topic terms to locate new expansion terms
given an input string n best list or lattice the cle applies unification based syntactic rules and their corresponding semantic rules to create zero or more quasi logical form qlf described analyses of it disambiguation is then a matter of selecting the correct or at least the best available qlf
used part of speech bigram model and beam search in order to get multiple candidates in their interactive ocr corrector
wang who uses a semantic grammar in a base class to provide high level understanding of an utterance and then finds a best match from among the grammars of derived classes for a more detailed understanding NUM
originally tbl was evaluated by on a smaller data set
in this paper we focus on the one that gave the best results in our earlier work the jensen shannon
in most previous work this lack of information is addressed by reserving some mass in the probability model for unseen joint events and then assigning that mass to those events as a function of their marginal frequencies
currently this revised version of the s tag formalism is used as the low level representation in the reluctant paraphrasing forthcoming
proposed understanding utterances by combining partial parses
recently a probabilistic approach to pronominal coreference resolution was also devised using the parsed data available from treebank
our interest in biber s work is also related to his definition of text types the texts within each type are maximally similar with respect to their linguistic characteristics while the types are maximally distinct with respect to their linguistic characteristics p NUM
however as have argued the ocp must be able to recognize initially at least a generalization of the dsp so that the proper moves of attentional state can be made
memory based approaches to parsing
no notion of irreducible joint intention as in work or any other attitude that would refer to a group mind is necessary
longacre presents a NUM x NUM model of four discourse types narrative procedural instructive expository and horatory sermon shown in table NUM
otherwise if g1 does not understand the relevance of g2 s utterance or NUM the recognition of propositional content from surface form has been studied by other researchers e.g. allen litman lambert and is not discussed in this paper
of proto roles treatment of verb alternations in ucg zeevat analysis in construction grammar
however symmetric predicates such as resemble and equal which also appear not to passivize easily are a more complex case
make the same point with respect to examples of systematic metonymy where such semiproductive lexical rules apply to noun phrase constructions
second we show how the underspecified semantic interpretation approach developed in can be exploited to interface f structure representations directly with the named semantic based transfer approach
though we are investigating sequences of words the subject is introduced by recalling shannon s well known work on the entropy of letter
a second issue identified is whether vector matching methods can succeed given that they essentially exploit linear term for term relations in the query and target document
previously adapted multi lingual also called translingual or cross language information retrieval mlir for this purpose and showed the practicality of the method
the relationship between prosody and syntax is well ostendorfand
this fact is exploited in games where the contestants have to guess letters in words such as the shannon game or hangman
a different work along the same lines using the same framework it concentrates on the syntax of noun phrases employing ideas from different linguistic theories
a more detailed description of the ga and a report on subsequent results can be found in
a property that is unique to multi document summarization is the effect of time perspective
it has been used in statistical disambiguation methods by ratnaparkhi reynar and this allows a comparison of our models to the methods they tested
course structure grosz and sidner give several examples of the types of intentions that could serve as dsps NUM NUM intend that some NUM intend that some NUM intend that some NUM intend that some NUM intend that some agent intend to perform some physical task
theoretical results suggest that it should be possible to use both labeled and unlabeled examples to produce a classifier that is more accurate than one based on only labeled examples
the scheme proposed by provides markup elements based on the tei scheme to annotate both references to the visual situation and discourse deixis in addition to bridging references the reliability of this type of annotatiou was n t evaluated
we thus do not deal with utterances concerning warnings e.g. do not clog or close the stem vent under any circumstances or utterances involving multiple actions that are related in particular ways e.g. to reset the printer flip the switch
to model this step we introduce an algorithm based on the construction of a dynamic recipe representation called a recipe graph NUM the predicate occurs fl is true if fl was is or will be performed at the time associated with fl as one of
show how the percentage of noun phrases generated with correct use of articles and number in a japanese to english machine translation system can be increased by applying heuristic rules to distinguish between generic referential and ascriptive uses of noun phrases
dynamic substitution let a be a weighted rational transduction of to a x r c a that is a regular weighted
proposed an algorithm for retrieving only uninterrupted collocations NUM ibigrams and n grams can be either adjacent morphemes or separated morphems by an arbitrary number of other words
it was as having NUM f score accuracy parseval on short sentences less than NUM words from the treebank
define a heuristic rule base for definiteness assignment consisting of NUM weighted rules
it is generally accepted that there is no such thing as an ideal abstract but different kinds of abstracts for different purposes and tasks
s study was motivated by the fact than mutual information could not give realistic figures to low fl equencies and used t score for a significance test for v n combinations
for instance the fragment you do something to the economy after some intermediate steps which are described in and is transformed into hasobj do something hassbj do you prepmod do to economy
the preceding discussions also show the relationship between our point of view and the idea of quasi trees
macwhinney does provide an explicit if simplistic theory of phonetic similarity
and the treatment of functionally related entities grosz respond to a related issue in discourse processing namely what other than an entity itself becomes focused when the entity is focused
suggested using conjunction and appositive data to cluster nouns however they approximated this data by just looking at the nearest np on each side of a particular np
however it would be interesting to see if parsing is necessary or if we can get equivalent or nearly equivalent results doing some simpler text processing as suggested in
this requires the lexicalization of quantifier scoping and the lexicalization of context as
similar work on compiling hpsg for efficient parsing should be equally applicable to generation
a profit implementation of lexical amalgamation is shown in figure NUM from
we use the fuf surge for generation
gersgorin see 4the grammar may be consistent when the spectral radius is exactly one but this case involves many special considerations and is not considered in this paper
an example of such a function c is a simple poisson distribution NUM which in fact was also used as the counterexample in for cfgs since cfgs also have the constant growth property
however a function c that grows smaller by repeated multiplication as the inverse of an exponential function can not be matched by any tag because of the constant growth property of tags p NUM
formalism i is better because term based formalism is problematic in that readers need to memorize the correspondence between arguments and features and it is not easy to add new features or delete features
previous translation methods are problematic in that they can not deal with disjunctive feature descriptions which reduce redundancies in grammar
in current linguistic theories such as hpsg however thanks to the type specifications the number of features that a feature structure can have is reduced so it does not cause as much trouble
it is procedural based on government several levels of syntactic representation are defined on which configurational searches and transformations apply
wu points out some possible difficulties of the parse parse match approach
the construction in this proof is essentially the standard left corner transformation as extended by theorem NUM NUM to algebraic formal power series
such strategy works better than the synonymy expansion probably because it identifies synonym terms but at the same time it differentiates word senses
in both cases we used the pillow package NUM to access data on the web and tfhfislate the resulting html code into prolog facts
along the same terms sp the definition based concept dbc and proposes using dbc co occurrence dbcc trained on a large corpus to disambiguate word senses
extended contribution graph and how mutual belief is constructed for multi party dialogues which was
for the training data from the genre of technical manuals it was rule which was most frequently used NUM of the cases NUM success followed by rule NUM NUM of the cases NUM success rule NUM NUM NUM rule i NUM NUM and rule NUM NUM NUM
chodorow byrd observe that many instances of intersense relations can be found in w7 that are not idiosyncratic but rather exist among senses of many words
unlike previous treatments of optimality in computational linguistics the new approach does not require any explicit marking and counting of constraint violations
this is a sage generated version of the famous graphic drawn by minard in NUM depicting napoleon s march of NUM NUM the graphic relates seven different variables position latitude and longitude size direction of movement temperature and dates and locations of battles
in addition to this knowledge about graphemes symbols and encoders sage uses knowledge of the characteristics of data relevant to graphic design including knowledge of data types and scales of measurement e.g. quantitative interval ordinal or nominal data sets structural
although we did not treat type hierarchies in this paper we can incorporate them by using the method
first unification of terms is more efficient of that of graphs because the data structure of terms is
whose experiments indicate that a referring expression that is more specific than is necessary for the recovery of the intended referent marks the beginning of a new theme concerning the same discourse referenc vonk et al
approaches which define discourse segments on the basis of reference are not useful for our purposes because they require referring expressions for recognizing segment boundaries
a shift in the deictic center can be signaled by a shift of topic a shift of time scale a shift in spatial scale or a shift in
since we are working with stories from hewspapers we were not able to identify the kind of discourse structure as assumed by orosz whose dialogues are more task oriented and have clear intentional goals
feature selection by one by one feature adding the feature selection process presented in della and is an incremental procedure that builds up s by successively adding features oneby one
yarowsky and leacock towell also found that local context is a highly reliable indicator of sense
a small sampling of other nonconcatenative operations that have often been employed in linguistic descriptions wrapping operations head wrapping operations extraction and infixation operations in categorial type logical grammar
the same strategy can account for deriving the pas in unbounded constructions and non constituent
for detailed presentations see
this experiment measures the effect of employing the triggers specified in i.e. the presence or absence in the previous NUM sentences of each tag in the tagset in turn to assist a real tagger as opposed to simply measuring their mutual information
and in fact demonstrate a significant tag trigger pair effect
in other words we are measuring the contribution of this long range information over and above a model which uses local tag n grams as context rather than measuring the gain over a naive model which does not take context into account as was the case with the mutual information experiments in
the second condition precludes the case where g2 is stating her desire to perform the act herself NUM this rule extends grosz original conversational default rule cdr1
as grosz and sidner have shown collaboration can not be modeled by simply combining the plans of individual agents
the second supervisor layer was coded as a genetic algorithm
contributes holds of two actions if the performance of the first action plays a role in the performance of the second action lochbaum
the approach is a standard one which does n t require an extensive description given the literature available on it
unlike other systems that have focused on error recovery at a particular chapter uses an integrated agenda system which integrates lexical syntactic surface case and semantic processing
data sets we used are identified as ned a mix of errors from novels electronic mail and an electronic diary applingl and peters2 the birkbeck data from oxford text and thesprev
null various systems have focused on the recovery of ill formed text at the morphosyntactic the syntactic and the semantic level
other comprehensive pitch accent models have been suggested in in the framework of concept to speech generation where the output of a natural language generation system is used to predict pitch accent
for further discussion of what happens with individual frames we refer the reader to
patterns of speech segmentation are likely to emerge to produce an efficient
by construction we have ensured that the following theorem from applies to probabilistic tags
evaluated the performance of such a minimal ne recognition system equipped with name lists derived from muc NUM training texts
recently the ics project at mrc applied psychology unit in cambridge and at the departments of psychology of university of sheffield and copenhagen has developed a systematic treatment of visual structures that will be part of our future research
here and elsewhere in this document we will make use of the z to define data types much of this is based on common mathematical conventions for sets and relations for example x for cartesian product and ip for power set
the table also shows cohen s to an agreement measure that corrects for chance the most important tc value in the table is the value of NUM NUM for the two human judges which can be interpreted as sufficiently high to indicate that the task is reasonably well defined
goodman gives a further explication of this subject including an item based description for a simple tag parser
is a partial parser that recognizes non recursive basic phrases chunks with finite state transducers
this type of model is used to facilitate the syntactic annotation of the negra corpus of german newspaper texts
previous studies such as have commented that methods developed for indo european language pairs using alphabetic characters have not addressed important issues which occur with european asian language pairs
this approach has also been used by for sense disambiguation between multiple usages of the same word
our multimodal interface technology is implemented in quickset a working system which supports dynamic interaction with maps and other complex visual displays
the initial applications of quickset are setting up and interacting with distributed simulations logistics planning and navigation in virtual worlds
both decision tree algorithms and instance based algorithms have been reported to be vulnerable to irrelevant or noisy attributes in the representation of exemplars which unnecessarily enlarge the search space for classification
such interfaces have clear task performance and user preference advantages over speech only interfaces in particular for spatial tasks such as those
in fact we feel that one of its crucial shortcomings is that it does not take into consideration the task of correcting repairs heeman
lakin lays out many of the initial issues in parsing for two dimensional drawings and utilizes specialized parsers implemented in lisp to parse specific graphical languages
this indicates that at least some of the advantages of attribute joining originate from implicit attribute elimination rather than combination which has also been removing an attribute may improve accuracy more than joining it to another attribute
conditioning representation transformations oil the performance of the original classifier implements a wrapper which has proven an accurate powerful method to measure the effects of data transformations on generalization accuracy
four human subjects and ten judges were selected from respondents to a newspaper advertisement none of them had any special expertise in computer
apart from the lure of the prize money a major motivation for the entry was a desire to illustrate the shortcomings of the
using a markov model to generate replies is easy shannon was doing much the same thing by flipping
models of order NUM were chosen to ensure that the prediction is based on two words this has been found necessary to produce output resembling natural
a more direct approach would be to tag words with feature structures that
see for an explanation of how such parame ters define a probabilistic weighting of trees
proved the properness of pcfg distributions imposed by estimated production probabilities and around the same time s established the subcriticality of the corresponding branching processes hence their properness
however designing principles of the grammar was close to the large covering french ltag grammar just including additional elementary trees for example for unexpected adverbs which can modify predicative nouns and a notation enrichment for the possible ellipsis
self repair the definition of self repairs stipulates that the right side of the interrupted structure the partial derived tree on the left of the interruption point and the reparandum the adjacent syntactic island must match
besides the structure in each inside phrase can be determined by the word co occurrence based method and i.e.
the linguistic test was selected for this if a clause in the past progressive necessarily entails the past tense reading the clause describes a non culminated event
we preferred the log likelihood ratio to other statistical scores such as the association ratio or NUM since it adequately takes into account the frequency of the co occurring words and is less sensitive to rare events and
building on this work segmented speech into speech acts as the first step in automatically classifying them and achieved a recognition accuracy of NUM NUM on turn internal boundaries using verbmobil dialogues
null bear dowding investigated the use of pattern matching of the word correspondences global and local syntactic and semantic ill formedness and acoustic cues as evidence for detecting speech repairs
by way of a baseline for evaluation we used the rule based method proposed by which achieved an alignment accuracy of NUM NUM when run over the full dictionary file of NUM entries and empirically evaluated on the same NUM tuple data set as was used for method NUM and method NUM
a ranking algorithm selects the best target language candidate for a source language word according to direct comparison of some similarity measures
the wide range of uses of definite descriptions was already
earlier work by lickley and colleagues lickley strongly suggests that there are prosodic cues across the interruption point that hearers make use of in detecting repairs
where these intrasentential words were included they NUM determined a NUM sentence window to be optimal for this task
we use mutual information mi to select the most useful trigger pairs for more details
experiment disambiguation of dependency relations was done using NUM anlbiguous
what does exist at the moment is coding schemes for particular domains and or applications in the case of dialogue acts for example there are several specific schemes for given applications some of which have been shown to lead to reliable coding
the first set has been collected by parsing the wall street journal NUM ibm manual and atis corpora using the wide coverage english grammar being developed as part of the xtag system
actually the main source of inspiration is the hyper literate programming approach a revision of literate programming stressing the importance of hypertextual connections between pieces of code in order to increase both the quality of the documentation and the productivity of the programmer
furthermore the prior corpus based studies of definite descriptions use that we are are based on theories of this type
we will illustrate the method for computing k proposed in by means of an example from one of our texts shown in table NUM
for the complete presentation of our methodology and results
the morphology system is coordinated with a large lexicon for
the classes used in f and e are automatically trained bilingual classes using the method described and constitute a partition of the vocabulary of source and target language
the disambiguation part of the engcg tagger then removes those alternative analyses that are contextually illegitimate according to the tagger s hand coded
in his description of the field methodology in the project on linguistic change and variation describes a number of issues in spoken data collection mentioning among other things the long term relationship with the speaker pool
in order to compute the kappa statistics we devised a new method whose core idea is to map hierarchical structures into sets of units that are labeled with categorial judgments see for details
our contribution is to show that these value preserving transformations can be written as simple item based descriptions allowing the same computational machinery to be used for grammar transformations as is used for parsing and to some extent showing the relationship between certain grammar transformations and certain parsers such as that of graham harrison
our benefit measure is identical to that used in transformation based learning to select an ordered set of useful
however query expansion by lexically related words can significantly improve retrieval effectiveness additional experiments in which hand selected wordnet synonym sets were used as seeds for expansion improved retrieval performance by over
the networks are then trained using gradient descent algorithms e.g. backpropagation rumelhart so that the activation of the output units is similar to some desired pattern
in we show that our pos based model results in lower perplexity and word error rate than a word based model
the grammars were induced from sections NUM NUM of the penn wall st journal treebank and tested on section NUM
for example found that expansion by synonyms only improved performance and wang vendendorpe found that a variety of lexical semantic relations improved retrieval performance
moreover there is ample empirical evidence which indicates that neural networks are at least as effective as other learning systems on most problems shavlik
we choose neural networks as the learning method for this study because our previous work has shown neural networks to be more effective than several other methods of sense disambiguation leacock
this is especially true for repairs since their occurrence disrupts the local context that is needed to determine the
but now many of these particular tasks are automated by software such as the sil programs shoebox and NUM or using commercial database packages
introduction the whole world of translation is opening up to new possibilities and to technological and methodological
the grammar fragment is implemented using the hdrug development system NUM van
der person mit child raising times of the person with kindererziehungszeiten der person mit child raising times of person with etc
the latter have been defined in formal terms as objects that have behavior state and location p NUM
our set of relationships is similar to the set used in the sparkle project i
reported that subjects verify contextually relevant properties significantly faster than contextually irrelevant properties also report similar results
these two levels roughly correspond to the top and bottom layers of the three layer syntax annotation scheme in the sparkle project
NUM pcfg models of tree structures the theory of pcfgs is described elsewhere e.g. so it is only summarized here
correctly resolving pp attachment ambiguities requires information such as lexical information that is simply not available to the pcfg models considered here
in the mdl framework the model description length is an indicator of model NUM estimation strategies related to mdl have been independently proposed and studied by
here the turnaround point is in the domain model that represents what the parser understood rather than at the typically chosen level of logical form see e.g.
sthe weights w are trainable in a supervised mode given a corpus of texts and their summaries or in an unsupervised mode as described in
another problem that affects the corpus based wsd methods is the sparseness of data these methods typically rely on the statistics of co occurrences of words while many of the possible co occurrences are not observed even in a very large corpus
the two resources used in this study are the chinese and the beihang dictionary
using for word sense disambiguation was several researchers subsequently continued and improved this line of work v
in such a dictionary is used for an application of lkb construction in which no prior semantic knowledge was assumed
our system can extract a number of markings features and relations from the parsed part of speech tagged corpora of the type found in in the penn treebank NUM
drawing on the feature sets used in and we believe the following factors might indicate co referenco syntactic role e.g.
for example channel definition format cdf is a standard to offer frequently updated collections of information channels on web
tendeau gives a generic description for dynamic programming algorithms
baker s work is described by
for example pl yt adv nnom aux adv yobjadv yt NUM 3we throughout this paper by modeling a dependency grammar with a string rewriting system
part of combination will involve increasing coherence of the generated text through the use of connectives anaphora or lexical
11the way paradigm entries combine is who mentions unification of patterns which constrain the order in which syntactic constituents must appear alongside unification of other types of features
an overview on other german morphology systems namely gertwol la morph morph morphix morphy mpro pc kimmo and plain is given in the documentation for the
details about the hypothesis formation phase are found
semantic based transfer as detailed in is based on rewriting underspecified semantic representations
provides further details of the semantic distance caluculation
equivalent to the use of similarity determination in corpus based approaches to infer absent n grams or triples e.g. an inference procedure has been developed which allows semantic relations not presently in mindnet to be inferred from those that are
for the toefle for a comparison on multiple choice tests
dale generated referring expressions so that their referents could be distinguished from the other discourse entities mentioned in the context
external lexical resources may be derived from machine readable dictionaries or large corpora by means of corpus analysis tools that can automatically produce lfg lexical entries for example the tools described by
events link s part of i will oppose individuals i.e. the denotata of nouns referring to individual entities and collections i.e. the denotata of definite plural nps collectives etc
i will show that non atomicity interacts closely with the notion of incrementality as and that this property of verbs should be lexically encoded although it is subject both to semantics and pragmatics driven variations
cornell sabir research buckley mitra walz also used a variant of the basic cornell trec NUM routing approach adding superconcepts to the routing query
NUM towards a semantic account non atomicity and incrementality the above data suggests an interesting solution to this puzzle atomicity seems to be related to the notion of inerementality as see
our demonstration system cora is a search engine over computer science research papers
cgus are similar in many respects to other meso level coding schemes such as initiative response in the linda coding scheme dahlb or conversational games
and indeed the agreement figures went up from k NUM NUM to k NUM NUM ignoring doubts when we did so i.e. within the tentative margins of agreement NUM NUM x NUM NUM
for more details on the annotation scheme v
see for further details of this corpus
the first one implemented in the texttning counts the f luencies of term repetitions and is an ideal lightweight tool for segmenting texts
the systems described in and are examples of the mixed evaluation strategy
as an example we consider the task specified for the sixth message understanding conference muc NUM which was roughly speaking to identify information in business news that describes executives moving in and out of high level positions within companies
this work in some sense dates in which the use of items in parsers is introduced
here i and use it to refer to the semantics of that part of the sentence which is or contains an element that is prosodically prominent
if we mechanically mirror this pattern of proof over the original glue terms with meanings but quantifier free a role meaning who uses a proof net method for glue language deduction for relevant discussion
characterise this as a function NUM from derivation trees to derived trees
NUM frequency information has come to be the focus of much psycholinguistic research on sentence processing
others that do integrate generation make use of the structural information provided by the nlg
several kinds of pos taggers using rule based e.g. statistical memory based and neural network models have been proposed for some languages
the empirical component uses the paradise evaluation framework to identify the important performance factors and to provide the performance function needed by the learning algorithm
wu and wong apply them in their sitg channel model to give better performance in their translation application
in sparck a knowledge intensive technique is proposed for extracting term variations
we use the term style to signify the variability in the use of features of a language that can be correlated with certain types of situation where situation can be regarded as the context within which interaction of the speech event occurs p NUM involving the participants the setting and the purposes of the communication
in spite of the difficulties disambiguation of the script as well as morphological analysis were covered by a variety of works
in hpsg however functional categories are discouraged english noun phrases are viewed as nps headed by the noun and determiners as subcategorized specifiers of nouns section NUM NUM
a limited experiment using patr ii is described it is extended to a reasonable subset of the language on a different platform tomita s lr parser compiler which is based on lfg
our weighting method follows the method except that qiu used it to expand terms from a single automatically constructed thesarus and did not consider the use of more than one thesaurus
an important example is the use of lexical cohesion implemented by measuring distance between term vectors to decompose the text to themes
a number of rhetoric structure theories have been proposed which recognize distinct rhetorical structures like problem solution and cause effect
newbold k bi gives the weighted mean as i l i n i where bi is the number of real documents found in stratum i out of ni sampled
the method described in this paper combines traditional statistical sampling with bayesian analysis bayes NUM to reduce this sampling uncertainty
our newinfo unit can be prosodically complex and it thus corresponds to what call an intermediate phrase it contains one or more accented words and a phrase accent high or low tone at the end
dm processes requests by the parser pr to plan a response to auser utterance in the cycle of analysis evaluation and and in particular its planning also concerns content organization into utterances
sv phrases following the definition suggested in are word phrases starting with the subject of the sentence and ending with the first verb excluding modal verbs NUM for example the sv phrases are bracketed in the following presented a theory that claims that the algorithm runs and performs
the speech recognizer uses hmm based continuous speech recognition directed by a regular grammar
developing an application to present the information for a given domain is often a time consuming operation requiring the implementation from scratch of domain communication knowledge required for the different generation subtasks
exemplars a library of schema like specifying the presentation to be generated at different levels of abstraction rhetorical conceptual syntactic surface form
a variety of approaches exist for determining the salient sentences in the text statistical techniques based on word distribution symbolic techniques based on discourse and semantic relations between words
we developed techniques to map predicate argument structure produced by the content planner to the functional representation expected by and to integrate new constraints on realization choice using surface features in place of semantic or pragmatic ones typically used in sentence generation
the core generator has a pipeline architecture which is similar to many existing an incoming request is received by the generator interface triggering sequentially the macroplanning micro planning realization and fi null nally the formatting of a presentation which is then returned by the system
as grosz and NUM discourses are fundamentally examples of collaborative behavior
this places the client in the position of active self discovery expanding themselves by actively expanding their model of the world
the k nn algorithm with this metric is called ibi ig see daelemans and
information theory provides a useful tool for measuring feature relevance in this way
grammar compilation takes as input a weighted cfg represented as a weighted transducer which may have been optimized prior to compilation preoptimized
we did experiments with full bigram models with various vocabulary sizes and with two unweighted grammars derived by feature instantiation from hand built feature based grammars
it is that acquisition of elementary spatial lexemes takes place soon after the naming explosion of the second year of life woodward et
proof the proof is almost identical to the one given by
after the initial effort by it has become clear that this area needs statistical methods in which an easy integration of many information sources is possible
coreferenee we have developed a model of coreference called discourse prominence theory or dpt
nevertheless informally the relative entropy is used as the distance between two probability distribution in many previous
additional hypernym data would also be helpful in this case and should be easily obtainable by looking for other patterns in the text as
the idea here is that nouns in conjunctions or appositives tend to be semantically related as discussed in and
on the other hand we scored lower on all caps than bbn s identifinder in the muc NUM formal evaluation for reasons which are probably similar to the ones discussed in section NUM in the comparison of our mixed case performances
dudani further proposed the inverse distance weight equation NUM which has recently become popular in the mbl
finally while maximum entropy models are designed to handle feature overlap a very high degree of overlap requires more iterations of the maximum entropy estimation routine and can lead to numerical
we used the groupaverage agglomerative clustering algorithm called buckshot
as described in the universal constraints are integrated in a lazy fashion i.e.
the speech perception system is based on a model developed by bo who based their system on a substantial amount of observations of human perception of speech
the lexical rule compiler implements the covariation approach to lexical rules
other work on the induction of selectional preferences includes
so we use a sort of spreading activation to calculate the importance of elements
zeddoc generates web traffic summaries for advertisement management software
we are basing our implementation on the tools developed at the university of massachusetts
see for a discussion of this point
all of them are represented by typed feature structures tfss the fundamental data structures of hpsg
for historical reasons the representation contains a lexico functional level closely similar to the syntactic analysis of the earlier english constraint grammar engcg parsing system
in the parser always attaches a phrase with a comma to the second nearest possible phrase
the coordinators are mostly redundant ch NUM NUM NUM especially they do not have
ch NUM NUM is a binary functional relation between a superior term regent and inferior term dependent
it is shown that the detection of phrases can be useful for retrieval although it is crucial to assign partial credit also to the components of the collocation
in we used the manual annotations in the ir semcor collection to show that indexing with wordnet synsets can give significant improvements to text retrieval even for large queries
the accuracy of cues such as those in table NUM for discrimination of simplest speech segments has been tested by different researchers using ratios of withinclass to between class variance covariance and dendrograms as described in phonmaster s documentation
constituent structure is less specific than manner classes in certain cases different manner class sequences are assigned the same constituent structure so manner classes form the key for lexical access at stage reports that even in a large lexicon of c NUM NUM words around a third of on to stage NUM where the phonatory properties of the segments identified at stage NUM are determined
we used a japanese grammar based on japanese phrase structure grammar jpsg that covers fundamental grammatical constructions of japanese sentences
studies have shown that the presentation of captions with pictures can significantly improve both recall and comprehension compared to either pictures or
for example states that the alvey tools grammar with NUM rules averages about NUM readings per sentence on sentences ranging in length between NUM and NUM words
focus and centering e.g. grosz models are attempts at explaining linguistic and atttentional factors that contribute to local coherence among utterances
golding describe an approach for inducing rules of english word formation from a given corpus of root forms and the corresponding inflected forms
there are two ways of dealing with this issue i the system could apply iterative refinements of the referring expressions generated by the planner as done in the local
the head corner parser can be thought of as a generalization of a left corner parser NUM the outstanding features of parsers of this type are that they are head driven of course and that they process the string bidirectionally starting from a lexical head and working outward
for a proposal similar in spirit
for example suggests that the head corner parsing strategy should be particularly well suited for parsing with grammars that admit discontinuous constituency illustrated with what he calls a tiny fragment of dutch but his more recent development of the head corner parser only documents its use with purely concatenative grammars
in order to get initial statistics for our model components we needed to binarize the upenn treebank parse trees and percolate headwords
our parsing strategy is similar to the incremental syntax ones proposed relatively recently in the linguistic
the necessary machinery as they point out is one based on categorial
the former alternative makes the spurious ambiguity problem of cg even more severe
other normal form parsers e.g. that of have the same problem
uses the fix point of a finite state transducer
although i am not aware of any report on the timing of the correct setting of the dutch v2 parameter there is evidence in the acquisition of german a similar language that children are considered to have successfully acquired v2 by the NUM 39th
write e s to indicate that a sentence s is an utterance in the linguistic environment e write s e g if a grammar g can analyze s which in a narrow sense is parsability
here we examine the developmental rate of french verb placement an early that of english subject use a late that of dutch v2 parameter also a late
notice that the penalty probability essentially a fitness measure of individual grammars is an intrinsic property of a ug defined grammar relative to a particular linguistic environment e determined by the distributional patterns of linguistic expressions in e it is not explicitly computed as which uses the genetic algorithm ga NUM the main result is as follows theorem
in the main channel model of each english word token ei in a source sentence is assigned a fertility which dictates how many french words it will produce
an earlier paper of myself also discusses the same problem and proposes another packing method
a robust skipping is used to obtain an analysis for islands of the speaker s sentence
furthermore standard sr approaches to speaker adaptation rely on relatively large amounts NUM NUM minutes of fixed recorded to modify the underlying model say in the case of accented speech again unlike human listeners
in most cases the information needed comes from a local context and the attachlnent decision is based essentially on the relationships existing between predicates and arguments what called selectional restrictions
we plan to exploit the natural structuring of the data features through decision trees or a small hierarchical mixture of experts type
in order to reduce data sparseness simplified the context by considering only verb preposition p prep verb and nlpreposition p prep nl co occurrences n2 was ignored in spite of the fact that it may play an important role
some of the class based methods have used wordnet to extract word classes
this paper looks at three types of constraints employed throughout the optimality theoretic literature that can not be translated in to the 1the computation time for an optimality theoretic derivation within the increases exponentially with the number of tiers
for makes use of a constraint paradigm uniformity pu stress which requires that all features within stressed syllables in one member of a paradigm must be preserved in the corresponding syllable of other members of that paradigm
another example is the bantu language chizigula in which roots with underlying high vowels appear on the surface with a single high tone in the penultimate syllable of the word where this syllable could belong to a suffix
owing to lack of syntactic information this preference is somewhat weaker than the collocation preference described in
the evaluation for polish was based technical manuals available on the internet
note j the corpora were annotated by the research institute for linguistics at the hungarian academy of
we use the kappa coefficient to measure stability and reproducibility
and in fact it is possible to devise o n NUM parsers for this formalism or other
one act d contributes to another if the first act is an element of the second act s recipe lochbaum
for further applications of our clustering model see
system behavior is controlled by adjusting the configurable param null based data model this type of architecture has been implemented classically as a blackboard system such as where inter module communication takes place through a shared knowledge structure or as a messagepassing system where the modules communicate directly
this can result in a thrashing effect as noted in where the system parses short constituents even very low probability ones while avoiding combining them into longer constituents
for experiments using alternative algorithms
for aligning texts in non cognate languages at the article level
the data sets include pos tag information generated by ramshaw and marcus using brill s transformational part of speech
the results are comparable to other results reported using the inside outside method see table NUM
present an approach to chunking based on a mixture of finite state and context free techniques
the derivation trees are context that is they can be expressed by a cfg weir showed that applying a tag yield function to a context free derivation tree that is reading the labels off the tree and substituting or adjoining the corresponding object level trees as appropriate will uniquely specify a tag tree
or another linguistic resource like wordnet
we propose to use as a generic dictionary during the consolidation phase because it can be profitably used for integrating the core lexicon by adding for each term in a semi automatic way its synonyms hyponyms and maybe hypernyms some coordinated terms
lexical information in ie can be divided into three sources of an ontology i.e. the templates to be filled the foreground lexicon fl i.e. the terms tightly bound to the ontology the background lexicon bl i.e. the terms not related or loosely related to the ontology
the wsj collection comprises part of the trec collection
we believe that parameters may be understood as building blocks of an interlingua in mt
feature value structures are added to the tree logic in order to enrich it with rhetorical relations and further discourse information
this includes over NUM NUM words from the cmu pronouncing dictionary vl NUM NUM NUM words and multiple word phrases from wordnet NUM NUM and NUM NUM words from the broadcast news transcripts used to train the trigger relation
specializes and generalizes g the specialization relation captures the lexical inheritance system underlying wordnet and
a context free base or skeleton has often been cited as a prerequisite for practical applicability of a natural language grammar and we here show that a dg can meet this criterion with ease
a very brief characterization of dg is that it recognizes only lexical not phrasal nodes which are linked by directed typed binary relations to form a dependency tree
the two standard projections and those used here are the constituent c structure and the functional f and discuss the projection idea in more detail
3chunk tokens with exactly equal lengths are excluded for reasons and other details of the algorithm
lauer has claimed that the h lmndency model makes intuitive sense and i r duces t tter results
as feature structures became central to linguistic description and unification became central to linguistic processing the standard semantic representation in hpsg has been a feature structure version of situation semantics and semantic composition has been implemented by unification of the semantic features of the components
the part of speech tagged version of the british national corpus bnc a NUM million word collection of written and spoken british was used to acquire the frames characteristic of the dative and benefactive alternations
probably the most widely used is the presence of word correspondences between the reparandum and alteration both at the word level and at the level of bear
we used a variant of the method described in the main difference being that we applied their lexical association score a log likelihood ratio which compares the probability of noun versus verb attachment in an unsupervised non iterative manner
the threshold values varied from frame to flame but not from verb to verb and were determined by taking into account for each frame its overall frame frequency which was estimated from the comlex subcategorization dictionary NUM NUM verbs
a simpler and more direct approach is suggested by constraint based multistratal theories of
dangling prepositions in relatives are acknowledged but not given an explicit
considered sets of paraphrases required for text transformation in order to meet external constraints such as length or readability
we became involved in problems of morphology because we need to find stems and roots for purposes of information retrieval and
in this way a product on f v is defined and it is easily shown that f v becomes a non commutative group called the free group over
NUM subsequent work extended the earlier approaches to recognize speaker s intentions across multiple utterances
by combining the fep type information access platform with the stepped level interactive machine translation method we we have developed an english writing support tool to help japanese people write in english on a pc
in searching for the best sequence of pos tags for the transcribed words we follow the technique proposed by and only keep a small number of alternative paths by pruning the low probability paths after processing each word
the proposed question is then verified using heldout data if the split does not lead to a decrease in entropy according to the heldout data the split is rejected and the node is not further explored
this is done by developing a local regular grammar which describes the compound morphological variation according to the inflectional model proposed in
by presupposing a lexicon of seed words she avoids the prohibitively expensive computational effort
there are several ways to perform such a task as described for example in we show here that finite state preprocessing for compounds is compatible with other possibilities
since in our proposal knowledge and procedure are represented by heuristic rules kss have been implemented as reflexive agents according to s j russel work
in their raft rapr approach use grammatical roles for ordering the focus lists and make a distinction between subject focus current focus and corresponding lists
which allows tentative conclusions on
although this approach can give inaccurate estimates the counts given to the incorrect senses will disperse randomly throughout the hierarchy as noise and by accumulating counts up the hierarchy we will tend to gather counts from the correct senses of related
the text planner is implemented as a functional
following loosely in the footsteps of the we divide them into the following categories fresh starts modification repairs and abridged repairs
these results lend support to intuition that sentence interpretation takes place incrementally and that partial interpretations are being built while the sentence is being perceived
furthermore we also introduce the event structure evstr and qualia levels of information
all experiments presented in this paper were run on the penn treebank wall street joumal
it has been tried out during with a group of computer science students taking a course in language engineering in
we have particularized and implemented the theoretical model using algorithms in the style of
for example a verb that appears more frequently in the progressive is more likely to describe an event than a state
in general there is a correlation between a verb s subcategorization frame and semantic and this applies to aspect in particular
finally disambiguating the direct object according to wordnet categories would improve the accuracy of using these categories to disambiguate verbs
we have used the basenp data presented in NUM this data was divided in two parts
in previous work it has been shown that with just a small number of labeled documents text classification error can be reduced by up to NUM when the labeled documents are augmented with a large collection of unlabeled documents
virtual polysemy and recurring intersense relations are closely related to polymorphic senses that can support coercion in semantic typing theory of the generative lexicon
uses discourse pegs to model referents and was applied successfully to a man machine dialogue task
on focus led to salience factors and activations but proved too demanding for an unrestricted use
the idea of tracking discourse referents using files for each of them has already been
using vapillon lfg parser an f structure parse tree was added to each re
numerous low level techniques have been developed using generally pattern matching between potentially coreferent strings e.g.
by generalizing a technique for unambiguous the reading qualified dominance information may be precomputed as follows s the tree traversal process starts at the preterminal nodes which are assumed to be shared among all readings
to evaluate the performance of these measures we used the hypernym as our gold standard
a complete source of information is the monograph
conceptual density is the paradigmatic component chosen to discriminate semantically among potential noun corrections
the undecidability of the generation problem in NUM was shown for definite clause who reduced the problem to hilbert s tenth prob
noticing that all the fragments studied in the preceding section are from the same source it becomes reasonable to accept the following hypothesis
the other type of highprecision parser which is based on dependency analysis was introduced by
the parser controlled applications of each rule by using the lexical constraints induced by decision tree
although it is not widely known there has been quite a bit of work showing how to use formal power series to elegantly derive results in formal language theory dating back to chomsky and
further investigation of other thesaurus and techniques is necessary to fully understand the influence of lexical information
we used another japanese pos tagger to make use of well grained information for disambiguating syntactic structures
these benefits make java an ideal programming language for constructing web based computational linguistic applications and
born in the 60s nowadays bots should be viewed as part of the wider move towards distributed object based
since this graph is acyclic and topologically sorted we have chosen the dag shortest path algorithm which runs in o v e
re ent works have shown that the corpus b sed approach for nominal compound analysis makes a good result to resolve the ambiguities
a more detailed report on xtag can be
ma w researchers have proposed conceptual asso iation to ba k off the lexical association on the assumption that words within a lass behave
traditional grammars report nine possible linker elements e es en er n ens ns s and and report as well that the left element determines which choice of linking element is appropriate for a given nominal compound
for instance use the primitive source of coherence with the two values semantic and pragmatic corresponding respectively to a link between propositional contents and between illocutionary meanings or speech acts
although spelling correction has been studied for several the traditional techniques are implicitly based on english and can not be used for asian languages such as japanese and chinese
empirically when given a large number of training documents naive bayes does a good job of classifying text
suri performed a critical analysis of the experiment that explained why other factors such as the infrequency of indefinite subjects in naturally occurring discourse the use of passive or active voice certain lexical choices potentially stronger reader identification with a victim near victim or with a criminal and order of text presentation could not explain the distribution of judgments in our experiment
has been used as a general resource of broad coverage lexical information in many natural language processing nlp tasks including sense tagging text summarization and machine translation
for ex ampie words such as chicken and duck which have animal sense often have meat meaning also i.e. animal grinding lexical rule
although the redundancy in wordnet could be a drawback it can be an ideal resource for a broad coverage domain independent semantic lexicon based on underspecified semantic
computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM an alternative to the corpus analysis phase is to perform psycholinguistic experiments such as those of gordon grosz and which validate aspects of centering theory by measuring subjects reading times of several types of sentences
NUM believe that lexico semantic underspecification is concerned with polysemous lexemes only such as door book e c and not homonyms such as bank as financial bank or river bank called h type ambiguous
from a multingual perspective there is no need to address the sororites paradox which tries to put a clear cut between values of the same word e.g. not tall tall
presents a novel twist to the algorithm in order to solve this problem
a winnow algorithm used in our experiment is the algorithm described
this weight updating method is the same as the one used
on the other hand we segment japanese documents into lexical units using the chasen morphological analyzer and discard stopwords
we followed the interpretation of its forms radical c assimilated to the radical l found
usually the solution is computed by the em algorithm with the dempster
among the most widely studied is the gibbs distribution mark
several authors have reported results on this subject including who gave analytical results on the rates of entropies of improper pcfgs
conversely the claim that everything stays on the stack would have to be supplemented by some story concerning how information gets forgotten e g by some caching mechanism such as the one
report experiments in which different types of lexical knowledge sources are used to resolve bridging descriptions and other cases of definite descriptions that require more than simple string match for their resolution
we use the finite state parses of fastu for recognizing these entities but the method extends to any basic phrasal parser NUM
fraurud reports that NUM NUM of definite descriptions in her corpus of NUM swedish texts are first mention i.e. do not corefer with an entity already evoked in the text found a distribution similar to ours in english spoken child language
in the past two or three years this kind of verification has been attempted for other aspects of semantic interpretation by for segmentation and by kowtko isard and for dialogue act annotation
the cogniac uses six heuristic rules to resolve coreference whereas the algorithm presented is based on a limited set of preferences e.g.
in the former two events occur simultaneously or two NUM on the basis of a corpus of NUM NUM multi predicate sentences sampled from various types of text reports a total of NUM connectives NUM NUM tokens altogether of which te holds the foremost rank it occurs NUM times while the second most frequent connective 9a occurs only NUM times
in they classified the concession relation as interpersonal i.e. author and or addresseerelated rather than ideational i.e. semantic since they defined it as one of the text segments raises expectations which are contradicted violated by the other
one reason is that the snow architecture influenced by the neuroidal is being used in a system developed for the purpose of learning knowledge representations for natural language understanding tasks and is being evaluated on a variety of tasks for which the node allocation process is of importance
earlier works on this problem represented an example by the NUM tuple v nl p n2 containing the vp head the direct object np head the preposition and the indirect object np head respectively
in particular winnow still maintains its abovementioned dependence on the number of total and relevant attributes even when no linear threshold function can make a perfect
the type part of an intensional verb contribution looks like vf ha o f o f o ga o fa
note that there is a scoping difference in the expressions underlying the phrases one and the same person eating several fruit dumplings and several persons sharing a meat plate the default interpretations which is in contrast to the moreover the additional referents may not only improve the basis for complement attachment but also for pronoun resolution
thus we take such constructions to be structural as well
this is often done in an admittedly ad hoc way requiring tricky retuning when new evidence is added
a first proposal for how to deal with center ambiguity in an incremental text parser has been made by
also when we analyze word meanings it is important to take both context and our world knowledge into
first in viewing discourse cues in terms of feature structures we are following recent
has developed a parser which uses basic entries with mixed morphological functionnal and semantic informations
NUM NUM roget s thesaurus in roget s words
in spite of the differences among these elemerits there are some striking similarities they can never occur without a complement which can not be extracted or moved but which can be replaced by a pronominal pronoun which is always realized as a chapter NUM
in a previous study we have shown that NUM of the information in professional abstracts lies in titles captions first sections and last sections of parent documents while the rest of the information was found in author abstracts and other sections
describe a small scale atn for hebrew capable of recognizing very limited structures
there are two main approaches to estimate the probability smoothing methods e.g. and class based methods e.g.
it is usually estimated from statistics on word co occurrences in large corpora
this exercise exists in a which has been used at our department with encouraging results
furthermore considering the three s NUM newinfo can be gradually specified as needed 3a similar distinction is made by vallduvl in terms of link and focus but his concern is in cross linguistic realisation of information packaging not in dialogue management
the basic algorithm combines the k vec approach described by with the greedy word to word
a question may be asked for its own sake as in this paper or
d yarowsky has considered a similar problem to link roget s categories an english thesaurus with the senses in cobuild an english
a seemingly reasonable method to the problem would be common word strategy which has been extensively studied by many researchers
simplify these probability distributions as given in equations NUM and NUM
hence a redefinition was
in tdmt possible source language structures are derived by applying the constituent boundary patterns of transfer knowledge source parts to an input string in a left to right based on a chart parsing method
an overview of tags is given in
the most successful update rule and the only one used in this work is a variant winnow update rule a multiplicative update rule tailored to the situation in which the set of input features is not known a priori as in the infinite attribute
the model proposed here is attractive and plausible but remains to be established
in fact after any composition we can inspect several high scoring sequences using the
idegnote the similarity to the raasterfeature map of feature integration theory
the system is further constrained by the substantial variations known to exist across natural languages in their characterisation of space eliminating ad hoc computational mechanisms and by the assumption that learning must simulate childhood language acquisition in the exclusion of explicit negative evidence see for
the vast majority of the computational approaches to discourse parsing rely on models that implicitly or explicitly assume that parsing is
we can either exhaustively enumerate and score all of the cases or use a stack to search through the most probable candidates
out of vocabulary words are accounted for by a general purpose garbage phoneme model
also used instantiated templates but in order to produce summaries of multiple documents
figure h professional abstract vol NUM no NUM
describes a normal form for ir rps terms where typed feature structures are interpreted as satisfiable normal form t rps terms NUM the signature consists of a type hierarchy and a set of appropriateness conditions
a typed feature grammar consists of a signature and a set of definite clauses over the constraint language of equations terms which we will refer to as torz definite clauses
example NUM we illustrate magic compilation of typed feature grammars with respect to definite proves that this compilation method is sound in the general case and defines the large class of type constraints for which it is complete
typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of head driven phrase structure grammar hpsg as discussed in and
em is a class of iterative algorithms for maximum likelihood or maximum a posteriori parameter estimation in problems with incomplete data
the sccs of da can be obtained in time linear in the size of g
it ensures that non parse type goals are interpreted using the advanced top down interpreter and it allows non parse type goals that remain delayed locally to be passed in and out of sub computations in a similar fashion as proposed by
NUM propose a compilation of lexical rules into t r definite clauses 2this view of typed feature structures differs from the perspective on typed feature structures as modehng partial information as
another definition of decomposable models is the following they are those graphical models that express the joint distribution of a set of variables as the product of marginal distributions of those variables where the new expression is a of the joint distribution
further we assessed the statistical significance of the differences in accuracy presented in figure NUM between the two methods for the individual words using a paired t test described with NUM NUM as the significance level
recently it has been shown that noun phrase analysis is effecrive for the improvement of the application of natural language processing such as information
theme rheme and contrast are used as important knowledge sources in determining accentual patterns
the NUM binary history views used by mene s binary features are very similar to those used in bbn s nymble ldentifinder system with two exceptions nymble used a feature for significant i.e.
all three of these elements are present in systems such as isoquest s and their absence from mene probably explains much of the reason why the mene only system failed to perform at the state of the art
in our first experiments the summaries were used as queries and every query was expected to retrieve exactly one document the one summarized by the query
a speaker is licensed to use a bridging dd when he she can assume that the common sense knowledge required to identify the relation is shared by the
resnik replicated the task with a different set of students and found a correlation between the two ratings of r NUM for the NUM word pairs tested
resnik and i all consider this value to be a reasonable upper bound to what one should expect from a computational method performing the same task
this is done by using four metrics of semantic similarity found in the literature while using roget s international thesaurus as the taxonomy
similar evaluation techniques have been proposed for singledocument summarizers
NUM has three readings for a discussion of a similar example
our definition of parallelism implements some ideas from on the behavior of anaphoric links
it can be derived in a compositional fashion along the lines described in
secondly elements are much smaller in number than phonemes nine elements compared to c NUM phonemes in english and thirdly elements unlike phonemes have been shown to participate in the kind of phonological processes which lead to variation in pronunciation
this flexible approach to the information required for transfer is termed cascaded and is balanced against the fact that each level of escalation implies a correspondingly greater share of the permissible runtime
but it has also been shown in particular that there are some uses of imp called imparfait de rupture breaking imp which are not strictly anaphoric in the sense that the rpt can not be identified with any previously introduced event
this in itself provides sufficient motivation for opting for such representations rather than say feature structures or the recursive qlfs of
the wordnet expansion experiments suggest that paradigmaticrelated words are useful for expansion while the success of retrieval techniques such as relevance feedback demonstrates the usefulness of expansion by syntagmatic related words
introduction the study of coreference in generative linguistics has led to a very strong emphasis on how the hierarchical structure of sentences interacts with the form of referring expressions to constrain
null typed feature grammars can be used as the basis for implementations of head driven phrase structure grammar
describe a method for compiling implicational constraints into typed feature grammars and interleaving them with relational constraints
the eurowordnet multilingual on the other hand features crosspart of speech semantic relations that could be useful in an ir setting
however if the learning procedure just looks at stem specific paradigms in isolation and then compares the results to see if they happen to be similar suggested there is nothing to make the learner hunt out similarity to look deeper for alternative analyses that would expose common underlying structure much as a linguist does
this is used in to get a NUM improvement of the retrieval performance disambiguating with a co occurrence based induced thesaurus
in particular we will require that the semirings NUM
we found that there were striking differences between what was seen as acceptable coreference in the linguistics literature and what emerged from quantitative analysis of judgments that were systematically obtained from subjects who were naive to syntactic theory
nakhimovsky also uses changes in time scale as a marker for changes in time
accessibility explains the apparent name name penalty as examined in for example
fora discussion of several of the factors involved in refem ng expression choice
according guided discovery takes the student along a continuum from heavily structured tutordirected learning to where the tutor plays less and less of a role
following we smooth the observed frequencies in the following way where
as far as japanese is concerned several studies have pointed out that speech intervals in dialogues are not always well formed substrings
in addition they do not have to be adjacent to each other which leads to robustness against speech recognition errors as in fragment based understanding
the speech recognizer incrementally outputs word hypotheses as soon as they are found in the best scored path in the forward search
furthermore because the frequency NUM NUM of dutch ovs sentences is comparable to the frequency NUM of english expletive sentences we expect that dutch v2 grammar is successfully acquired roughly at the same time when english children have adult level subject use around age
in addition to the psychological evidence for such a scheme in animal and human learning there is neurological evidence inter alia that the development of neural substrate is guided by the exposure to specific stimulus in the environment in a darwinian selectionist fashion
we say that a sentence s expresses a parameter c if a grammar must have set c to some definite value in order to assign a well formed representation to s convergence to the target value of c can be ensured by the existence of evidence s defined in the sense of parameter expression
jp et i nl gda t agset html ing insights from eagles s penn treebank and so forth
in order to select the most credible one s among them we apply a two step procedure the details of which are explained in
this is a well known operation see for instance
multiparty dialog contains a particular kind of discourse structure the dialog act related to the speech the conversational moves of and the adjacency see also e.g.
our method is similar to that used by shirai but the principal differences are as follows
the application of this algorithm to the basic problem using a parallel bilingual corpus aligned on the sentence level is described in
however as discussed in responses to yes no questions may not explicitly contain a yes or no term
we modified the standard stop list distributed with the smart information retrieval to include domain specific terms and proper names that occurred in the training corpus
owp as provides some support for correspondence constraints input output only
smolensky propose a different method for combining constraints local conjunction
the system is built upon the university of pennsylvania s within document coreference system camp which participated in the seventh message understanding conference muc NUM within document
using the fst the implementation for this constraint would be the following fst
given that a dependency rule constrains one head and its direct dependents in the dependency tree we have that the dependent indexed by uk is coindexed with a the accounts for displaced elements and differently from the other relations is not semantically interpreted
there have been attempts to apply neural networks to pos tagging e.g.
the unique link between class NUM and NUM is explained by the fact that NUM represented an emerging topic NUM at the time the the research done around a new gene type the klebsiella pneumoniae nifb gene
centering theory which built upon earlier work by and proposed that NUM is perceived to be more coherent than NUM because in NUM i a jeh helped dick wash the mr
although centering theory is associated with the discourse structurm theory of gr which considers speaker intention and hearer attention as the critical dimensions to be modeled in discourse understanding there are alternative models for understanding the relations among utterances in a discourse which are based on other principles
in aligrtrnents are asymmetric each french word is connected to exactly one english word
this algorithm is then similar to the algorithm of shieber schabes
recently built a source channel model of translation between english and french
approach was to construct a stylistic grammar using the notion of norm and deviation from norm see
in time o n NUM for many bilexical cfgs or hags of practical significance just as for the bilexical version of link grammars it is possible to parse length n inputs even faster in time o n NUM
though one could use the kappa statistic or other disagreement measures such as the a instead of the vote entropy in our implementation of cbs we decided to use the vote entropy for the lack of reason to choose one statistic over another
while there has been some work exploring the use of machine leaning techniques for discourse and to our knowledge no computational research on discourse or dialogue so far has addressed the problem of reducing or minimizing the amount of data for training a learning algorithm
in the committee based sampling method cbs henceforth a training example is selected from a corpus according to its usefulness a preferred example is one whose addition to the training corpus improves the current estimate of a model parameter which is relevant to classification and also affects a large proportion of examples
he noticed three main phenomenon which disturbed him i
the basic mechanism detailed in is to examine for each pair of newly added and existing instances semantic type consistency similarity in the concept hierarchy attribute value consistency similarity and a set of heuristic rules some specific to particular types of anaphora such as pronouns which can act to rule out a proposed merge
for lack of space some proofs are omitted an extended version is available as a technical
the basic coreference chain technique we describe in this paper yields generic summaries as opposed to user focused summaries as these terms have been used in relation to the tipster summac text summarization evaluation exercise
built on that work by actually using conjunction and appositive data for noun clustering as we do here
given the attribute the content word sequence and the function word sequence of the bunsetsu axe independently generated by word based NUM gram models
as for english there have been researches in which a stochastic context free grammar scfg fujisaki is used for model description
although and richardson have proposed the use of wordnet in information retrieval they did not used wordnet in the query expansion framework
a pcfg can be described by a random and its asymptotic behavior can be characterized by its branching rate
the pertaining disambiguation information learned from the corpus is put into action in the symbolic transfer component of the verbmobil system
presents a scheme for inducing phonological rules from surface data mainly in the context of studying certain aspects of language acquisition
voorhees used wordnet as a tool for query
dale s izpioure identifies the center with uthat entity which is the result of the previously described
this list is then processed by a transformation based learning paradigm as illustrated in figure NUM
cohen propose similar methods for text categorization tasks although they do not address the comparative issues investigated here
the algorithms included in this study are representative of the major types suggested by of the statlog project comparing machine learning algorithms
i various models have been constructed by the ibm team
identification of such sequences will enable us to assign functions to particular sections of contiguous text in an article in much the same way that text segmentation program seeks identify topics from distributional
the stk developed at the limsi is used together with some simple rules for distinguishing the article le in from the pronoun le la
article was aimed at speech therapists it did not describe the alignment algorithm as such which is described only in a and in great detail in an
since sfg and hpsg share a similar underlying logic of typed feature structures it should be possible to use tools such as profit and amalia for sfg by implementing the system network as a type hierarchy
in the semantics of which was derived from situation semantics semantic composition is performed by recursive unification of semantic feature structures to produce a single complex semantic feature structure in the semantic head
the method proposed in uses context modelling and salience values besides syntactic constraints and proves NUM more accurate than hobbs algorithm on the same corpus
for example discussing the possible adaptation of phillips algorithm to incremental generation point out that some versions of categorial grammar cg would make the generator more talkative by giving rise to a more generous notion of constituency
they have been collected with the intex
we used the wordnet taxonomy to recognize benefactive pps cf
constraint grammar was chosen to represent syntagmatic knowledge
it has been shown that when the errors are uncorrelated to a sufficient degree the resulting combined classifier will often perform better than all the individual systems
to examine if the overtraining effects are specific to this particular second level classifier we also used the c5 NUM system a commercial version of the well known program for the induction of decision trees on the same training material
the first and oldest system uses a traditional henceforth tagger t for trigrams based on context statistics p ti ti l ti NUM and lexical statistics p tilwi directly estimated from relative corpus frequencies
after an attempt with a context heterogeneity for identifying word translations fung based her later work also on the co occurrence assumption
however the radical incompleteness of grammar that this alternative implies seems incompatible with the promising parsing results that charniak
association for computational linguistics computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM demonstrates that if lexical rules are able to perform arbitrary manipulations deletion addition and permutation of potentially unbounded lists any recursively enumerable language can be generated even if the nonderived lexicon and grammar only generate context free languages
this conception of lexical rules has been utilized in a constraint based who adds a list valued attribute to the input description of a lexical rule that encodes the name of the lexical rule so that the rule input specification will only unify with lexical entries that also specify the rule name as a member of this list valued attribute
one way of formalizing and implementing this approach is to adopt the covariation technique of discussed in section NUM in which finite state machines fsms representing the possible lexical rules that can apply to each basic lexical entry are associated with equivalence classes of such entries and the entry is simplified to information common between the variants
this rule adapts the study developed for np chains in french and it constitutes an important mechanism for reducing the high number of candidates in our current problem
as a common strategy pos guessers examine the endings of unknown words along with their capitalization or consider the distribution of unknown words over specific parts of speech
compared to recent stochastic english parsers that yield NUM to NUM NUM NUM seems unsatisfactory at the first glance
on one hand according to the linguistic approach experts encode handcrafted rules or constraints based on abstractions derived from language paradigms usually with the aid of corpora
the decision tree approach outperforms both the naive approach of assigning the most frequent pos as well as the NUM error rate obtained by the n gram tagger for m greek presented in
from a semantic and argument structure point of view many of them are like complements to verbs in that they contribute entities to the relation denoted by the noun thus an adequate treatment might introduce a particular number of arguments for every relation class denoted by nouns just as it is done for verbs
NUM but there are many internal complements that can be optional and some can not be present except under very specific circumstances these are the complements described as default and shadow arguments f to say that there are obligatory adjuncts as for example in this suit washes easily
lyons reminds us that deictic terms may also have
although discourse markers such as firstly and moreover are not commonly used in spoken dialogue a lot of other markers are employed
several pedagogical systems support training in formal grammar writing
we are aiming at first for a system with limited functionality both in order not to overreach ourselves and to facilitate evaluation which will undergo several rounds of formative
the activation of an mr is computed according to salience factors this technique is described for instance by
a more operational system using semantic representation of referents is for instance lasie presented at muc NUM which relies however a lot on task dependent knowledge
unlike the original restriction operator approach whenever possible they avoid the detour of multiple transfer on disambiguated representations
mccarthy and postulate an underlying form ix stem for dhm that looks like dhamam with a spreading of the final m radical other list the stem as dhamm with a geminated or lengthened final radical
recently suggested that this particular difficulty can be overcome by a different measure that takes into account the informativeness of the most specific common ancestor of the two words
in recent years text corpora have been the main source of information for learning automatic wsd see for example gale church
this text base consists of four years worth of mainichi shimbun newspaper which have been automatically annotated with morphological tags
form alone seems to most greatly influence what should be chosen as the subject focus of an sx because sy
for the elements of formal language theory we use we
ge et al used a statistical model for resolving pronouns
a closer look at translation problems involving structural mismatches between languages in particular head switching phenomena led to the contention that transfer is facilitated at the level of semantic representation where structural differences between languages are often neutralized
figure NUM classification tree for pos tags
we found that speakers reading ability was generally much higher than their conversational ability found that their lowest skill level speakers had some conversational ability but no reading ability
table NUM shows a comparison of our system s performance and the best performing version of their system as reported in wright gorin henceforth wgr97y without other measures of task complexity it is impossible to directly compare our results with those of wgr97
the cosine value for each destination is subsequently transformed NUM see for a definition or discussion of the kappa statistic and for an application of the kappa statistic to dialogue evaluation
an exception to this rule is the which applies functionalinformation structure based criteria on a per clause basis
this research was supported by the national science foundation sbr NUM the us army research office daah04 NUM baa5 and office of naval research n00014 NUM NUM NUM
the implementation of the text segmenter resembles that of the texl tiling
in the field of natural language processing various computational models have been established for syntactic analysis and semantic interpretation of nominal
finally in the work by the combination of taggers is used in a bootstrapping algorithm to train a part of speech tagger from a limited amount of training material
another goal of the present work is to try to alleviate the problem of data sparseness by applying a method for generating new pseudo examples from existing data
the idea that discourse markers dms like then or anyway signal underlying discourse relations drs like cause opposition contrast etc has been adopted in a certain number of works on text and conversation for various examples
more complete presentations of naive bayes for text classification are and
humans who share a very small language base are able to communicate when the need arises by simplifying their speech patterns and negotiating until they manage to transmit their ideas to one
however gazdar reported NUM that mix may well be outside the class of ils as conjectured by bill asl paper
we use the dynamic string alignment algorithm described by to determine the minimum number of substitutions insertions and deletions needed to turn one string into another
also following there is a general composition algorithm for constructing an integrated model p xlz from models p x y and p y z
give the following example of the am shift pattern NUM a john has had trouble arranging his vacation
for example traditional text tiling approaches often undersegment broadcast news because of rapid topic shifts
propose such a adopts it
the rationale for using kappa is explained
based oil these observation mort et al propose the defaults of subjects of sentences with these conditionals
biihler did not originate the idea of deixis
a detailed description of the approach can be found in
in more recent work have argued that the amount of information that is required for working memory to perform the tasks ascribed to it far exceeds the capacity of the kinds of memory stores that are studied using traditional short term memory tasks
is cited in support of the notion that pronoun interpretation is based on a linear backward search of the text but this research has been criticized for confounding distance between the pronoun and its antecedent with
in subsequent work we have defined a centering model for attentional state at this level grosz and have explored the ways in which pronominal reference and centering interact gordon interalia
in the following sections we will describe an approach to acquiring statistical information at conceptual level rather than at lexical level from a corpus using conceptual hierarchy in the kadokawa thesaurus titled new synonym dictionary and also describe a method of syntactic role determination using the extracted knowledge
a third class of expressions providing evidence relevant to this discussion are bridging descriptions i.e. definite descriptions like the door that refer to an object associated with a previously mentioned discourse entity such as the house rather than to the entity
our contribution goes along the lines proposed in grc
contrary to this intuition experiments in text retrieval and natural language have not shown much improvement when incorporating information of the kind humans seem to use
wade giles wg and pinyin are two famous systems to romanize
theoretical analysis has shown that multiplicative update algorithms like winnow have exceptionally good behavior in the presence of irrelevant attributes noise and even a target function changing in
within machine learning the use of knowledge is often limited to that of constraining the hypothesis space either before learning or by probabilistically biasing the search for the hypothesis or to techniques such as which rely on explicit domain knowledge that can be used to explain usually prove deductively the observed examples
however some adjectives express different meanings when they appear in one or the other position and some adjectives can appear only in one of these two positions
we exploit and extend the generative lexicon to develop a formal description of adnominal constituents in a lexicon which can offer a solution to these problems
all these phenomena involve what has been termed transfers of meaning i.e. the meaning of some constituent does not correspond to what can usually be expected according to the syntactic and semantic environment
metonymy or semantic coercion is usually defined as a figure of speech in which the speaker is using one entity to refer to another that is related to it
sdrt an extension ofdrt describes a complex propositional structure of discourse representation structures drss connected via discourse relations
this for a detailed description of how a sound and complete notion of syntactic consequence can be defined for this logic
basically the constituents on the so called right frontier of the discourse structure are assumed to be available for further
in trec NUM this group used genetic algorithms to select the optimal set of training documents
an example of such a diagram is displayed in figure NUM which is adapted from one p NUM
the basic notion comes from the work of and further developed
these problems are exacerbated when search material is unfamiliar
the semantic clauses would have to be correspondingly augmented as carried out for example by for rise p and fall p
other linguistic classes were added with the development of the idea of representational systems that is a biased use of sensory specific words of the visual auditory kinaesthetic olfactory and gustatory classes these classes are lexical lexicogrammatical and semantic
and conventions such as those used in discourse representation theory drt
in standard i ipsg section NUM NUM NUM
planning can continue separately and include pragmatic considerations like those described
the formalisation of dependency grammars is p NUM for each category x there will be a finite number of rules of the type x yi y2 y fi t
ratnaparkhi reynar used a maximum entropy model and a decision tree on the dataset they extracted from the wall street journal corpus
such a possibility of reuse of lexical similarity is found in the application of lexical space
dependency only maintain that it is sufficient to account for the relation between words for a syntactic description to be adequate the word being the only syntactic unit acknowledged
we have used a corpus for this dialect namely the hammurabi
van oirsouw based on the literature on coordinate deletion identified a number of rules which result in deletion under identity gapping which deletes medial material right node raising rnr which deletes identical right most constituents in a syntactic tree vp deletion vpd which deletes identical verbs and handles post auxiliary
systemic functional grammar sfg is based on the assumption that the differentiation of syntactic phenomena is always deter null mined by its function in the communicative context
packed ambiguity representation techniques maxwell could be integrated with the approach in
from maximal probability parses for the british national corpus derived with a statistical parser we extracted frequency tables for intransitve verb subject pairs and transitive verb subject object triples
c est ce qui a motivk leur utilisation dans le ddveloppement de logiciels traitant des problhmes complexes au niveau industriel
une mkthode formelle est considkrke comme une ddmarche de dkveloppement de logiciels baske sur des notations mathdmatiques et des preuves de validation
tenny thus claims that telic events require such an argument which she calls an affected argument
unlike we think that training on the output of the cg the statistical disambiguation works quite better NUM at least using such a small training corpus
as we mentioned above it is difficult to define accurate rules using stochastic models so we use the constraint grammar for basque NUM for this purpose
while designing the general tagset we tried to meet the following requirements it had to take into account all the problems concerning ellipsis derivation and composition
the logical conclusions of these experiments are the statistical approach might not be a good approach for agglutinative and free order languages as pointed out by
we combined corpus analysis with guidelines from a japanese textbook to turn up many spelling variations and unusual katakana symbols the sound sequence j i is usually written y but occasionally y g u a is usually p t but occasionally p NUM
brown corpus ku has been used as a reference corpus in many computational applications
have reported reductions in perplexity using a stochastic context free grammar scfg defining both simple semantic classes like dates and times and degenerate classes for each individual vocabulary word
prior research exploring the use of revision in summarization has focused mainly on structured data as the input
to see that NUM can be performed note that the neighbors of a in figure NUM c are lcb e d rcb so NUM such a factorization exists for any decomposable model but the independence statements must be applied in an appropriate order to achieve the factorization
in fact in the widely used probability propagation algorithm described by a bayesian network is ultimately transformed into a decomposable model to take advantage of the computational benefits of that class of models see the triangulation step described
model selection can be based directly on the value of a goodness of fit statistic or it can be based on a cost function that combines a goodness of fit statistic with a penalty for model complexity such as the akaike information criterion or the bayesian information criterion
it might seem that this assumption commits us to a full entry theory of the lexicon in which all possible words are present that is the consequences of lexical rules are precomputed
this account draws heavily analysis of dative in construction grammar e.g. fillmore and attempts to integrate her insights and general approach into a more formally explicit constraint based framework
in work aimed at lexical choice in uses information about significant local co occurrences to choose which of a set of synonyms is most typical in a given context
argues in the context of a detailed that accounts of lexical rules that do not include a quantitative component can not form the basis for a satisfactory theory of the acquisition of lexical rules by language learners
the use of append in conjunction with a flat semantic representation is also adequate to express potentially recursive rules of regular sense extension such as grinding and portioning as lexical rules
similarly the examples in 10b 10c and 10d are all attested uses of the dative that violate putative narrow class morphological or semantic constraints on its NUM NUM
in meurers formulation the coindexation generated is interpreted as genuine reentrancy since the lexicon is defined utilizing junk slot of the set of possible words as shown below word l1 v
the text encoding initiative tel provides a general guideline for transcribing spoken language using standard generalized markup language sgml
wordnet provides sense information placing words in sets of synonyms synsets
moreover the proposed method is most productive with a lexicalist mt
for example sen1 the category specifications in the coding manual axe based on our previous work on tracking point of which builds linguistic theory of subjectivity
the parseval attempted to compare parsing performance across systems using the treebank as a basis for comparison
compare the performance of parsers using three different types of grammars and show that a probabilistic context free grammar using inside probability unnormalized as a figure of merit outperforms both a context free grammar and a context dependent grammar
unlike the original algorithm we used only a portion e.g. NUM of the context vectors closest to the centroid for computing the sense vector since these central vectors contain less noise in terms of representing the cluster
the derived features mechanism can be essential in achieving intuitive contrasts as in verbal case frame learning where the interaction between features nicely fits the task of learning slot dependencies
the implementation work has been supported by an analysis of definite description use in corpora of written language
the major constraint we seem to face is that there is a degree of expectation under conversational implicature that the speaker refers using information known to the addressee
our in this respect who also includes parallelism constraints in the form of substitution expressions directly into an underspecified semantic formalism in his case the formalism of quasi logical forms qlf
in principle capturing may occur in all formalisms for structural underspecification which represent binding relations by the coordination of
a number of different algorithms have been suggested and implemented for phrase break detection
it is usually assumed that an optimal description of the first dog is either the large dog or the black dog whereas the large black dog will be suboptimal since it contains two adjectives where one will do it is longer than strictly necessary and suffers from a degree
NUM and NUM together give us a hirschbiihler sentence and our treatment in this case is descriptively equivalent to that of
the insights of the cu analysis in carry over to clls but the awkward second order equations for expressing dominance in cu can be omitted
obtaining training materials for statistical methods is costly and timeconsuming it is a knowledge acquisition bottleneck gale
this can be achieved by using the lenient composition
the value p is given by the score of the definiteness in referential property analysis
bybee another source is karlsson the endings and entries are often listed as wholes especially in close knit combinations
the resulting set of markers is further validated by investigating coherence relations and their possible realizations here we can draw on our earlier work
although a symbolic morphology learner presumably must start with stem specific paradigms we need to have a counterbalancing principle of which collapses together stem specific paradigms where possible even when this was n t the obvious analysis at first
the fragment is based on the analysis of german dissertation
NUM the idea has something in common with the pc kimmo based analyzer of the university of pennsylvania
a belief state is represented by a frame thus a speech act representation is a command for changing the slot value of a frame
thus the classification proposed by figure NUM has been revised
furthermore speech synthesis using this model have yielded high quality results hill
this approach allows for a good prediction of vocalic
finally lyons discusses tensed verbs as
in criticizing the data based favors instead the use of substance based approaches
along these lines a similar theory was developed wrt temporal adverbials and also applied to temporal clauses
hmm is a probability model which has been successfully used in many applications such as speech and part of speech
adaptation by learning can not provide a full solution here because individual information seekers profiles and contexts are unpredictable from past experiences
we hence assume that the input documents come with gda global document annotation tags embedded
a similar exploitation of taxonomic knowledge in terms of cardinality restrictions has been exploited for scope
there are only two approaches which in some aspects deviate from this characterization pustejovsky s generative lexicon addresses the first aspect
this sort of combination supposes that all binary scoring functions s ai aj are comparable
discriminating word senses with differefit part of speech as annotated by the church pos tagger also harmed retrieval efficiency
these NUM sentences are the first NUM sentences in the set that a parse quality heuristic similar to that described indicated to be of low quality
lacking an automatic method recent wsd works still resort to human intervention to identify and group closely related senses in an mrd
used the clustering algorithm of to build a hierarchical classification tree
for instance manual expansion of trec queries with semantically related words from wordnet only produced slight improvements with the shortest queries
however pattern matching is too limited to capture the variety of word correspondence patterns that speech repairs exhibit
in terminology however this is not the case because the notion of terminology is essentially
we use a beam search strategy to find a good path in this tree
for lack of space the type hierarchy specifying syllable roles segments morphological categories and word peripheral position and the definition of syllabi fy have been omitted
as we wish to estimate the bilingual lexicon directly
for example diekema et al in trec NUM conference observed that the performance of their cross language information retrieval was hurt by lexical gaps such as bosnia bosniethis illustrates a highly topical missing pair in their static lexical resource which was based on wordnet NUM NUM
in this paper i extend the guided search alignment algorithm of covington to handle more than two strings
eisner actually defined g split bilexical grammars in terms of the latter property
basically i accept the ideas of cyclic con eval loop and locally encoded finite candidate set
in a second language acquisition one of the most important factors in learner errors is first language
ellison etc propose how to implement ot
developed a pronoun resolution algorithm that chose a referent for a pronoun from a set of potential referents which were filtered to assure their syntactic and morphological appropriateness on the basis of a salience factor rating
clauses with have as their main verb composing NUM NUM of the corpus are highly ambiguous and have been addressed separately by considering the direct object of such
several indicators measure phenomena that are not linguistically constrained by any aspectum category e.g. the present tense frequency and not never indicators
pioneered the application of statistical corpus analysis to aspectuai classification by ranking verbs according to the frequencies with which they occur with certain aspectual markers
other methods that have been proposed are one based on using the gain and an approximate method for selecting informative features and several criteria for feature selection were proposed and compared with other criteria
spans to handle word order is although in that approach all string positions instantiate to values on a single ordering i.e.
meanwhile we plan to apply ontological mediation algorithms to other ontoiogies including the unified medical language system umls
work is being done in this area see for but this is not the focus of our current research
for the evaluation we used the same NUM NUM sentences as in NUM which apersonal communication 4we would like to thank david palmer for making his test data available to us
she then used the smart information retrieval system to retrieve the documents
in this research we adopted bell laboratories tts
in dutch the score of a match is pronounced in a special way the major boundary between the two numbers triggers lengthening of the first number and a pause between the two numbers but the two accented numbers are realized with a so called flat hat pattern as if they were part of the same clause see for a description of pitch movements
students use the fsa utilities package NUM which provides a powerful language for regular expressions and possibilities for adding user defined operators and macros compilation into optimised automata and a graphical user interface
relevance based criterion i.e. whether the overall interpretation is likely to be
in the per class method also used a set of words wordscisj is selected for each combination of class ci and subproperty sj
such studies are usually based upon fine grained linguistic descriptions for different
when there are we performed post hoc analyses using tukey s hsd to control for multiple comparison error to identify the differences
the string specification is a partial description of string which may
combined acoustic cues with a statistical language model to find intonational phrases
we also experimented with a method which applies the binomial test on frame frequency data
alternatively they can be checked against the accessibility of contextual assumptions
in the field of pragmatics however the role of context has always been one of the central issues and the recent approach to context selection based on the notion of relevance seems to be currently the most promising
given that the argument y must include zo w but excludes w we can infer that w can not contribute to the argument of zo w giving an exclusion constraint that amongst other things blocks the direct combination of zo w and w for more details although a slightly different version of the first order formalism is used there
recent work has seen proposals for a range of such systems differing in their resource sensitivity and hence implicitly their underlying notion of linguistic structure in some cases combining differing resource sensitivities in one system s many of ssee for example the formalisms developed in
the second of the two rules in NUM is about this ordered preference of transition states NUM and japanese zero pronoun resolution walker propose the following ranking order of forward looking centers to deal with japanese
parsing schemata are closely related to grammatical deduction systems where items are called formula schemata deduction steps are inference rules hypothesis are axioms and final items are goal formulas
the improved iterative scaling technique della was used to train the parameters in the me model
for example sue played the piano is nonc lminated while sue played the sonata signifies a c lminated event this example comes from
the next section explains how it is possible to cope with lexical ambiguity in wordnet by combining its information with another source of information the dewey decimal classification ddc
the final evaluation will include a comparison of the lexicon produced by using wn ddc with a normally developed lexicon in the domain of bond issue
this contrasts with the mdl criterion which recommends the usage of uniform priors
we are currently investigating the application of lazy learning techniques as described to learning the english naming word phoneme correspondences from a corpus of names
although the inaugural loebner was touted as the first formal instantiation of the turing test that it truly satisfied turing s original
the belief reasoning techniques described in can be used in modeling this
identification and mapping of both entities and relations using additional information such as syntactic constructs a direction which has been will be handled in subsequent stages
a parsing schema can be generalized from another one using the following item refinement multiple items
we will describe parsing algorithms using parsing schemata a framework for high level description of parsing
tree adjoining grammars are a extension of cfg introduced by joshi that use trees instead of productions as the primary representing structure
in particular we used fuf to implement the lexical chooser representing the lexicon as a grammar as we have done in many mckeown
as we mentioned this specification covers the core of sentence syntax it can be completed to cover coordinated structures negation and other focalizers only also willingly etc in specific positions prototypically they occur at the beginning of the focus see haji ovk partee and sgall in press
however even a network with a greater number of dimensions which in this sense can serve as the shape of a tr can be formally described in the form of its one to one cf
readers unfamiliar with the model are referred to for more details
more concretely the domination relation can be elaborated in a planning based framework as holding between a subsidiary plan and its parent in which the completion of one plan contributes to the completion of its parent plan the satisfaction precedence relation can be elaborated as the temporal dependency between two
the feedback sets consisted of a few dozen examples in comparison to thousands of examples needed in other corpus based methods
therefore we usually smooth these values using the following alternate choice of pb given by w ba a t q pb NUM NUM in NUM where e is a small positive number
darrell et al convert r g b tuples into tuples of the form
then the micro planning mechanism described here is deployed to populate a text structure representation which has been excerpted directly from meteer
hearst found individual pairs of hypernyms and hyponyms from text using pattern matching techniques
we construct a hierarchy of nouns including hypernym relations
the data was derived by mapping structural information from the penn treebank wsj corpus into supertags from the xtag grammar using
arrlplace is an abbreviation of NUM NUM NUM NUM NUM NUM NUM data arr place zthis generator called sem2syn is a reusable surface generator for dutch implemented
given some associated discourse move i.e. a further convention associated with the exception the use of mary can be regarded as felic ito
fastus is heavily based on pattern matching
theoretically speaking as appelt pointed out it is enough for referring to provide sufficient description to distin towards generation of fluent referring action in multimodal situations NUM guish one object from the other
since the appearance of covington s article and even since the first draft of this reply a highly relevant article has appeared which coincidentally addresses the issues
owing to this cost m nlg has been applied mainly in contexts where the knowledge base is already available having been created for another purpose for discussion see
diagrams may be easier to understand than logical formalisms but they still lack the flexibility and familiarity of natural language text as empirical studies on editing diagrammatic representations have for discussion see
this approach has also been adopted in two m nlg systems gist which generates social security forms in english italian and german and drafter which generates instructions for software applications in english and french
in this section we shall present some of the planning knowledge for a toaster domain in the form of axioms in the situation calculus NUM
our systematic polysemy is analogous to logical polysemy word senses in which there is no change in lexical category and the multiple senses of the word have overlapping dependent or shared meanings
this process is illustrated along the lines based on autosegmental as follows
walker performed a corpus analysis on written and spoken english to compare centering with hobbs in terms of their accuracy and coverage for finding the cospecifiers of pronouns
template based techniques recently had some sort of revival through several application oriented projects such as idas that combine pre defined surface expressions with freely generated text in one or another way
therefore it has been argued in that independently generated wcs are not good for the use in translation
in cause consequence or consequence cause relations the such pseudo imperatives are studied
the accuracy of handwritten ocr is still about NUM and it worsens dramatically when the input quality is poor
for example the drafter system builds spls and hands them over to penman contrary to moose however the domain model in drafter is subsumed by the upper model which significantly limits the range of lexical variation as pointed out above
in particular since wordnet senses are more fine grained than most other mrds such as each word entry is more ambiguous
in discussing verbs that denote a points out that fill cover surround and saturate can describe either a state or an inchoative event and encodes the difference with the primitive inch we have shown in the introduction to this section
dependency syntax is attractive because of the immediate mapping of dependency trees on the predicate arguments structure and because of the treatment of free word order constructs
a compilation step in the parser can produce parse tables that account for left corner information this optimization of the earley algorithm has already been proven fruitful in
we describe an algorithm sulu supervised learning using labeled and unlabeled examples that uses both labeled and unlabeled examples and provide empirical evidence of the algorithm
reports that co occurrence of word pairs contributes to the ir performance for japanese news paper articles
our long term goal is to be able to incorporate such a contextual disambiguation system within a taxonomy such and thereby to use it for resolving query word senses at retrieval run time
the only approach we have found that consistently and statistically significantly outperforms the strategy described above is based upon error correcting output encoding
although it is widely acknowledged that various related entities become salient e.g. the door of a house the time or location of a meeting the determination of the scope of what becomes salient remains an
however the psycholinguistic literature does not support walker s contention that a cache in combination with main memory as is standard in computational architectures provides a good basis for a computational model of human attentional capacity in
a recent argues that the attentional mechanism has limited capacity that this limited capacity determines the accessibility of information in discourse processing and that certain linguistic behavior can only be explained in terms of this limited capacity
in fact kintsch report that reducing the capacity of the short term buffer from four propositions to one proposition has no effect on how well the discourse processing model fits human subjects performance in recalling and summarizing stories
the claim of centering theory is not that centering alone suffices for resolving all pronominal reference but that when attentional state plays a role it is local not global attentional state
in particular as used in computer systems stacks do not differentiate among different kinds of frames but interruptions seem to operate differently from normal embeddings and there are open issues in explaining pronominal reference at discourse segment boundaries
tive evaluation of breck baldwin s cogniac we felt appropriate to extend the evaluation of our approach by comparing it to breck baldwin approach which features high precision coreference with limited knowledge and linguistics resources
lexis nexis used the inter term distance between nouns in the topic
subsequent study found support for the magnesiummigraine hypothesis NUM
we can trace this work back to research in hmms by baum and his colleagues
l second it is easy to represent and process named disjunctions in the term based representation
a promising extension would be to evaluate locally in lnultiple phonological domains using autoseglnental representations along the but the technical realization of this still has to be worked out
the performance of each the tagging models is measured on a NUM NUM word test treebank handlabelled to an accuracy of over NUM
query expansion with wordnet has shown to be potentially relevant to enhance recall as it permits matching relevant documents that could not contain any of the query terms
a combination of rather sophisticated techniques based on wordnet including automatic disambiguation and measures of semantic relatedness between query document concepts resulted in a drop of effectiveness
the fuf surge grammar is primarily based on systemic
parsing phonological output forms onto morphological signatures in om is relatively straightforward while the question is not even adressed seriously in finite state formalizations of ot
in cucchiarelli a method is proposed to automatically increase the coverage of the core set with an additional set of categories selected from the set of under populated categories sct ci see step NUM of the algorithm
developed a text planner that captures both intentional and rhetorical information
edmonds studied an aspect of collaboration similar to that studied by heeman and hirst
the c structure is a tree that describes the surface constituent structure of an utterance the f structure is an attribute value matrix marking the grammatical relations of subject predicate and object as well as providing agreement features and semantic forms and is a correspondence function that maps nodes of the c structure into units of the f structure
formalism following the discourse representation theory drt of
syndetic address this problem by expressing the behavior of computing and cognitive systems within a common framework that supports reasoning about the conjoint system
finally we have provided web based visualization tools for a major corpus of dialogues anne
this is similar to results in the literature
the automatic assignment of phrase and function labels is generally more reliable than manual input because it is free of typically human errors see the precision results in brants skut
the tagger for grammatical functions works with lexical and contextual probability measures po depending on the category of a mother node q
some additional decrease might have been caused by noise introduced by incorrect assignment of senses in context during the learning phase see
of unparsed words the following stochastic models inspired in and collectively referred to as hidden understanding model hum are employed
learning in gsq takes place by the dynamic creation of grammar rules that capture the meaning of unseen expressions and by the subsequent update of the stochastic models
for this purpose the key element of predicate is the so called directional auxiliary
in natural language processing many methods have been proposed to solve the ambiguity problems
the k nn algorithm with this metric and equal weighting for all features is called ib1 aha kibler
for an example of this type of unsupervised learning as a side effect of supervised learning see daelemans berck
exposes several variations more or less complex
newbold gives the fraction q allocated to each stratum i by
this is experimentally attested by the paper reporting comparisons between a pos based n gram model and a class based n gram model induced automatically
it is reported that the dependency is more frequent between closer bunsetsu in terms of the position in the sentence
the performance of this system is shown to improve over that of the purely string based texttiling
similar reseaxch has been successful aiming at an improvement of a word n gram model both in english and japanese
this information also referred to as valence information is available both in machine readable form as in the comlex database and in humanreadable dictionaries e.g.
i report an implementation and comparison of connolly s measures with my own earlier work
for instance to employ the dot product of two vectors as a measure of their similarity as is common in information we have the matrix btb whose elements contain the dot product of document vectors
resnik initiated research into the automatic acquisition of semantic selectional restrictions
l ktude des approches de dkveloppement des applications likes au traitement automatique des langues naturelles taln k tous ses niveaux i.e. lexical morphologique syntaxique skmantique et pragmatique nous a permis de constater une quasi absence de l utilisation de mdthodologies de dkveloppement qui inthgrent toutes les phases du cycle de vie d un logiciel
first the hypothesis duplicates with respect to silence and noise words are removed from the nbest lists NUM next the word stream is tagged with brill s part of speech pos version NUM NUM adapted to the switchboard corpus
shieber proposed the idea of bounded subderivation to deal with such aberrant cases treating the two nodes in the derivation tree representing on esp re que as singular and basing the isomorphism on this
where NUM is the overlap metric and w is the information gain of attribute i
we need therefore to convert the information present in levin s to a format that can be automatically analyzed
the method for scaling each dimension of the space was adapted from in order to deemphasize dimensions irrelevant to the local context
for the experiments we used a set of randomly selected articles from the wall street journal contained in the acl dci cd rom rather than a corpus of transcripts of spoken language corpora such as the hcrc maptask corpus or the trains corpus
in the third chapter of his further develops and extends christophersen s list
weighting the dimensions of the space according to variability allows a semantic distance measure to be influenced less by irrelevant dimensions
we evaluated the strength of these correlations by means of a computer simulation
uses cascaded mbl ibi ig in a similar way for several tasks among which basenp recognition
it performed slightly worse on basenp recognition than the experiments fz NUM NUM NUM
our system identifies topic changing articles by looking for the transition in the frequency of words
that result from the contextual interpretation of the user utterance in a belief module the requirements of the application system and the current confirmation strategy cf
this has led to promising results in information retrieval and related areas
sharing the ir definitions between the text organization and the realization component thus avoids problems of realizability described in
ir expressions are consumed by the text realizer which is a version of the production system tg NUM described in
templates have been widely used in mt particularly in the example based machine translation ebmt framework kaji et al i992 giivenir
surface realization components impose a layer of intermediate representations that has become fairly standard such as the sentence plan language spl
NUM j NUM can be identified as a date
som self organization map is an effective automatic classification method for any data represented by
it is of course impossible to verify this without access to the original texts but it is instructive to consider the following example from
so we view boundaries between dialog acts as one class and non boundaries as the other see for a similar practice
wordnet in which the nodes represent concepts organized as synsets
in particular they consider gricean approaches whereby the speaker is supposed to take into account likely inferences by the hearer in accord with and select the generated np accordingly so as to avoid false or
we used the japanese co occurrence as a source of examples for x no y
null whereas lfg accounts make use of the following agent beneficiary goal experiencer inst
the results presented here generalize to the n grammar case see
furthermore following the empirical approach successfully we split complex nps only after a search has been performed in the corpus for occurrences of their sub segments in unambiguous situations i.e. when the sub segments are not included in a larger segment
past studies have focused on building term extraction tools termino david terms katz
an algorithm for compilation into transducers was provided by
in this case we use the thesaurus dictionary bunrui goi hyou to learn the meanings of nouns
null the algorithm is implemented in the fsa utilities
our default approach to multiclass problems is to use schapire adaboost mh algorithm
taxonomy of verbs and their classes is a widely used resource for lexical semantics
a segment is defined as a paragraph unless its first sentence has a pronoun in subject position or a pronoun where none of the preceding sentence internal noun phrases matches its syntactic features
modify the second of two rules on center movement and realization which were defined by rule NUM if some element of cf ui NUM is realized as a pronoun in ui then so is cb ui
an algorithm to automatically and efficiently deform the area function of an acoustic tube in order to increase or decrease the frequency of a formant or combination of several formants has been proposed elsewhere
since the grammar is non recursive no attachments of constituents are made and also due to its small size parsing is extremely tokens per second s the parser takes the pos sequence from the tagged input parses it in chunks and finally these poschunks are combined again with the words from the input stream
NUM unlike our goal was not to build a multi stage cascaded system to result in full sentence parses but to confine ourselves to parsing of basic chunks
in a lexicalist mt framework such as translation equivalence is defined between collections of suitably constrained lexical material in the two languages
NUM for example in comlex np pp consists of a noun phrase followed by a prepositional phrase as in put the milk in the refrigerator where put the milk put in the refrigerator and put in the refrigerator the milk are not acceptable
null for instance note that sentences containing temporal connectives expressing the same temporal structure may not describe a coherent discourse in certain contexts
there are two representative systems that handle tfssl ale a tfs interpreter written in prolog and profit deg this research is partially funded by the project of japan society for the promotion of science jsps rftf96p00502
we considered also the metrics indicated in
contrast some applications will require fully automatic correction for
one of the promising directions of improving the efficiency of handling tfss while retaining a necessary amount of flexibility is to take up the idea of amavl proposed in to design a general programming system based on tfs
for example defining the senses by the possible translations of the word dagan gale by the roget or by clustering yields a grouping that does not always conform to the desired sense distinctions
shape variance is also at work in modern hebrew mh inflected see fig
for this purpose we use the phrase extracting program described in
due to the locality principle of hpsg p 145ff they can therefore be legally removed in fully instantiated items
this can be avoided by reusing parts of the input structures in the output structure without introducing significant bookkeeping overhead
first we will incorporate tile expectation maximization em algorithm into our lexical learning to see how nmch performance can be improved
thus the coverage of clls is and
analysis systems that are based on unification grammars can be classified into two groups from the viewpoint of the ways feature structures are represented a those using labeled directed and b those using first order terms
working within the dynamic quantifier logic dql framework b we claim in this paper that in every language the translation into a logical language will be such that the preference ordering of possible discourse referents for an anaphor in a sentence can be explained in terms of the scopal order of the exp re lslons in the antecedent that introduce the discourse referents
the tree is represented using the conventions proposed by
the texts were also manually annotated with discourse structures built in the style of
the loebner contest does offer some it provides an annual turing test for anyone who cares to submit an entry it promotes and stimulates interest in the field of artificial intelligence it encourages competition it could conceivably result in new techniques which may be applicable to fields outside of artificial intelligence and it stimulates discussion amongst researchers
those systems identified and repaired errors in various ways including using grammar specific rules metarules least cost error recovery based on chart semantic preferences and heuristic approaches based on a shift reduce
the underlying translation model is model NUM from
however previous work that numerically evaluates aspectual classification has looked at verbs in isolation
this is described in more detail in the original
in comparison with the hierarchy defined by this one avoids the need of redundant specifications and associated type declarations like the strict trans type which are needed in a monotonic encoding
such an approach to representing the lexicon has some advantages like its ability to capture linguistic generalisations conciseness uniformity ease of maintenance and modification and modularity
as the larger the mutual information between x and y the higher the possibility of x and y being combined together
palmer conducted a chinese segrnenter which merely made use of a manually segmented corpus without referring to any lexicon
details on centering theory and its relation to discourse structure can be found in grosz joshi walker iida and gordon grosz for lack of space in this paper we only provide a minimal introduction to the basic terminology of centering theory
this assumed inverse relationship between frequency and the semantic content of a word is used for example to weight the importance of terms in the standard idf measure used in information retrieval see e.g. and to weight the importance of context words to compare the semantic similarity of
moreover default specifications can be made to act as indefeasible information using yadu s deffill operation that has a tdfs as input and returns a tfs by incorporating all the default information into the indefeasible tfs say at the interface between the lexicon and the rest of the system
yadu also provides the possibility of defining defaults that are going to persist outside the lexicon with the p operator which was already shown to be significant for example for the interface between the lexicon and pragmatics where lexically encoded semantic defaults can be overridden by discourse information
this considera tion is slightly different from the one suggested where it was proposed to unconstrain nodes with infrequent joint feature frequency counts
usually linear interpolation weights are computed so as to maximize the likelihood of cross evaluation data
word grouping via a greedy algorithm for which convergence and optimality are not theoretically guaranteed
using the classes in addition to the original noun brill and seems however a better strategy
as with the pure statistical translation model in which a bracketing transduction grammar models the channel alternative hypotheses compete probabilistically exhaustive search of the translation hypothesis space can be performed in polynomial time and robustness heuristics arise naturally from a language independent inversiontransduction model
in particular winnow was shown to learn efficiently any linear threshold with a mistake bound that depends on the margin between positive and negative examples
the distributional clustering model that we evaluate in this paper is a refinement of our earlier model
as have shown however sloppy identity is not necessarily linked to vp ellipsis
the terminology is borrowed and refers to expressions which partially or totally repeat a previous expression
3see for a complete description
the goal of this initiative is to develop a standard for semantic pragmatic and discourse features of annotated corpora
following carletta1998 such a definition should be mutual exclusive and unambiguous so that the annotator finds it easy to classify a dialogue segment as a certain dialogue act
to facilitate comparison with previous results we used the upenn treebank corpus
for example explanation is based on syntactic function
an additional important fact about coreference and fronted adjuncts emerged in our studies of reading time in sentences with intersentential coreference
carden found that in over NUM of the naturally occurring instances of backwards anaphora that he observed the pronoun was in a fronted adjunct
by gathering simple statistics we are able to decide which of two nouns is more specific to over NUM accuracy for nouns at basic level or below see and about NUM accuracy for nouns above basic level
work as shown in figure NUM kss are independent modules specialized in different aspects of ppa resolution problem surface patterns possessive relationships sentence center providing both knowledge and procedure distribution among autonomous entities specialists
like we identify syllable boundaries on the basis of consonant clusters and vowels ignoring morphological considerations
we say that wv and nq are semantically related if w i and nq are semantically related and wp nq and w i nq are semantically similar
second there is no definition of partial specification of strings while the distinction between helping and main paradigms is one of the main features of the present approach it allows to define morphemes independently of any specific root and thereby to capture generalizations about morphemes
further information can be found in and dalrymple et al
a notable innovation made in intuitionistic type theory itt is to allow proofs to enter into judgments of well formedness propositionhood
has given a categorialstyle formulation of these ordering rules
or lfg f structures in the glue approach
based on this observation kennedy and boguraev suggest an adaptation of the lappin and leass approach to the analysis frontend of english constraint grammar which provides a part of speech tagging comprising an assignment of syntactic function but no constituent structure
at its current state we have built a cantonese mandarin bi dialect dictionary of about NUM words and phrases based on some well established books when completed there will be around NUM NUM word entries and a handful of rules
null for our implementation we use
the approach of interpretation as abduction used in aims to recover the premises and inferential links which lead to an argument s conclusion
in the unigram tagger used in our experiments for words that do not appear in the lexicon we use a for a good summary of these techniques
we are also considering the application of microplanning operators for generating paraphrases and aggregations such as those described in prior to rendering an argument in english
these purposes and their interrelationships form the intentional structure of the discourse
we originally thought to build a general letter to sound wfst on the theory that while wrong overgeneralized pronunciations might occasionally be generated japanese transliterators also mispronounce words
address the problem of coherent selection for gist preservation however they depend on the availability of a complex meaning representation which in practice is difficult to obtain from the raw text
the idea of producing abstracts or summaries by automatic means is not new several methodologies have been proposed and tested for automatic abstracting including among others word rhetorical and probabilistic models
tool combines a front end processor with the stepped level interactive machine translation method we first
dolan describes a heuristic approach to forming unlabeled clusters of closely related senses in an mrd
srinivas reported a NUM NUM increase in perplexity over a word based model on the wall street journal reported an NUM NUM increase but a NUM fold decrease in the number of parameters of such a model for the lob corpus and report a NUM increase on the lob corpus
in addition some researchers have explored the use of both local context surrounding the hypothesized and the larger discourse context to improve the accuracy of proper noun extraction when large known word lists are not available
two separate approaches have been proposed to address this problem in the explainable expert system ees approach the knowledge representation used by the expert system is enriched to include explicit strategic knowledge i.e. knowledge about how to reason and domain specific knowledge
null now compare the results of reading time studies for such examples the evidence here is from
several authors e.g. consider multiple levels of coordination in dialogue including roughly those of contact perception understanding and attitudinal reaction
following the methodology in we measured the reliability of coding for a linearized version of the iu tree by calculating the reliability of coding of iu beginnings using the kappa metric
interest in mrd based research has increased over the years in particular the ldoce and webster s seventh new collegiate dictionary have drawn much attention
there are many researches in the area of human face recognition and human name extraction e.g.
as it is possible to run a sense clustering algorithm on several mrds to build an integrated lexical database with more complete coverage of word senses
the second scheme concerned intentional informational structure as content operated at a macro level of granularity and was structured as hierarchical trees with annotations for capturing discontinuities
because the linguistic solutions in engcg are largely based on the comprehensive descriptive grammar by also that work was made available to them as well as a number of modern english dictionaries
xhpsg an hpsg english
critical analysis suggested the need to use the ssd methodology to test the role of then and aspect in the interpretation of pronouns in the ssd experiment
the mapping from the tectogrammatical level to the linear order requires separate rules called 8hallow rules
in english spelling correction correction candidates are generated by the minimum edit distance technique
similar techniques are used for correcting the output of english ocrs and english speech recognizers
we slightly changed c4 programs to be able to extract class frequencies at every node in the decision tree because our task is regression rather than classification
for the final ranking we chose the log likelihood statistic which is based upon the co occurrence counts of all nouns see dunning for details
consider the following sentence corpus a cargo aircraft may drop bombs and a truck may be equipped with artillery for war
knowledge preconditions were not represented in grosz original definitions but were subsequently formalized by the author
the centering framework makes three main claims NUM given an utterance un the the authors would like to thank james alien marflyn walker and the anonymous reviewers for many helpful comments on a preliminary draft of the paper
head driven phrase structure grammar hpsg is often taken as the theoretical basis for such grammars
exercise iv unification grammar linguistically motivated grammars are almost without exception based on some variant of unification
newspapers were scanned at 300dpi and 400dpi two of reported that when the baseline accuracy is NUM his method achieved NUM NUM
it was assumed that the rank order distribution of the correct characters is a geometric distribution whose parameter is the accuracy of the first candidate
as in decision tree induction feature selection is also performed as a result of model search pedersen
strong arguments for the constituency only position are brought forward for instance
we also demonstrate the classification performance of these models in a large scale experiment involving the disambiguation of NUM words taken from the hector word
ecoc and pwc cc and NUM injecting
it might be the case that homonyms require pragmatic underspecification as suggested for instance but in any case are beyond the scope of this paper
the former deals with multiple subcategorisations whereas i am also interested in polysemous senses the latter includes homonyms which i should be left apart
the open text corporation gathered terms for expansion by looking at relevant documents from past topics that were loosely similar to the trec NUM topics
however typical thesauri such as suffer sense gaps and occasionally are too fine grained
topsense is tested on NUM words extensively investigated in recent wsd literature
also looked at detecting intonational phrases
our position will be that dependency relations are motivated semantically and need not be projective i.e. may cross if projected onto the surface ordering
in ps based accounts the construction is represented by phrasal categories and extraction is limited by bounding nodes
the literature describes two basic approaches to deal with bridging in cl the first consists in working mostly at the semantic level interpreting bridging as a kind of implicature the reader draws to support the coherence of discourse pp l NUM
this corpus and its preparation axe described in more
the sa tags represent a speaker s intention in an utterance and is more or less similar to the traditional illocutionary force
although we do not know of any experiments directly comparable to ours a recent work reported by seems to be similar
e m v the discourse tagging tool em
addressed the usefulness of a multiple knowledge source in human and automatic discourse segmentation
sense selection happens in cases of lexical ambiguity where one sense is chosen among a number of contrastive senses associated with a word
the implemented system relies on the mikrokosmos ontology to specify properties for sense concepts and sense views j
there has been some work at making additions to extract grammatical relationships from a dependency tree structure so that one first produces a surface structure dependency tree with a syntactic parse and then extracts grammatical relationships from that tree
see for a discussion of such issues
vendler defined achievements and accomplishments as respectively punctual and durative
in an illustration of the time consuming nature of annotating or i eannotating a large corpus the sparkle project originally did not have time to annotate the english test data for modifier relationships ks a result the sparkle english parser was originally not evaluated on how well it found modifier relationships
the simulation of attention via spreading activation generally led to a significant speedup in content planning times with little effect on the generated arguments
these operations are realized by mapping schemata similar to those elaborated for linguistically motivated lexicalization
nag selects an argument presentation strategy by examining separately the impact of each individual line of reasoning contributing to the belief in the goal in the argument graph
the snow approach has been successfully applied to other problems of natural language processing
we did not include coordinate terms called siblings in because we found that while nouns in wn usually have many coordinate terms the chance of hitting them in ldoce definitions is hardly high enough to worth the computation effort
this would not require additional annotation in the lexicon given that in a conceptual dictionary like wordnet meronyms are already present and there are plans to insert
our source for syntactically annotated training data was the penn treebank
our objective is to generate such fluent referring actions and is rather different from those and
the semantic classes in ldoce are not provided with a hierarchy but bruce and guthrie manually identified hierarchical relations between the semantic classes constructing them into a hierarchy which we use to resolve the restrictions
they were evaluated by the hadicapped people hard of hearing persons in terms of the following points characters size font color number of lines timing location methods of scrolling inside or outside of the picture see two most of the subjects preferred NUM line outside of the picture captions without
this kind of extension of meaning does not modify subcategorization distributions although it might modify the rate of causativity but this is an unavoidable limitation at the current state of annotation of corpora
have pursued the general option on the grounds that it is the real task and should be tackled directly but with rather lower success rates
thus the subject of the intransitive la becomes the object of the transitive lb levin
this is in the ai tradition of combining weak methods for strong results usually ascribed to and used in the crl nmsu lexical work on the eighties
so for instance the sentence consumer spending jumped NUM NUM o in february after a sharp drop the is counted as an occurrence of the manner of motion verb jump in its intransitive form
show that in analyzing an intuitively ungrammatical string like these boys walks there is a probabilistic accumulation of evidence for the plural interpretation over the singular and unmarked one for all models m1 m2 and m3
thus we capture collaborative planning in a propose evaluate modify cycle of actions
other systems allow search of multimedia archives of television programs and videomail
the words are first assigned standard parts of speech using a and then are assigned supertags according to the unigram model
meanings and intentions represented by the clause mann
this approach has been studied
in an earlier attempt the window was seven words but these rules were less expressive in other respects
the current work was as well as but departs from both in several respects
we use the inverse document frequency idf weighting scheme whereby a term is weighted inversely to the number of documents in which it occurs by means ofldf t log NUM n d t where t is a term n is the total number of documents in the corpus and d t is the number of documents containing the term t
cars creating a research space model provides a description at the right level for our purposes
a recent area of interest has been with underspecified representations of an ambiguous sentence s meaning for example quasi logical ory udrt
another choice may be information content although it can avoid the difficulty faced by shortest path methods it will make the minor categories within a medium one get a same distance between each other because the distance is defined in terms of the information content carded by the medium category
a natural alternative is based on the shortest path from one category to another in the thesaurus e.g. but it is known that the method suffers from the problem of neglecting the wide variability in what a link in the thesaurus entails
to avoid this problem we use the concept of class proposed for a word n gram model
to cope with this problem we use the concept of class proposed for a word n gram model
park has proposed an alternative theory of scope availability which states that available scopes are accounted for by relative scopes of arguments around relations whereby quantifiers may not move across np boundaries
when an utterance presupposes a proposition p then in order for the utterance to be felicitous in the context p must be entailed by
we are interested in how far humans can be trained to consistently annotate these sentences similar experiments where subjects selected one or several most relevant sentences from a paper have traditionally reported low agreement
dowty for instance argues that incremental themes must be able to undergo an incremental cos 3a the horse finished crossing the line
i am moreover assuming here that semantic features and categories are treated within a multi sortal logic possessing a hierarchy of sorts organized as an inheritance based lattice
event object mapping functions as are another key approach to the treatment of event structure
note that the m inc and i inc functions are homomorphic aspectual roles relating events to the individual vs material subparts of objects for further details
research med at estimating the best specialization level for NUM gram model shows a class based model is more predictive than a word based NUM gram model a completely lexicalized model comparing cross entropy of a pos based NUM graxa model a word based NUM gram model and a class based NUM graxa model estimated from information theoretical point of view
describe in very general terms a method for evaluation of nlu systems in a single application domain database query with a number of different measures such as accuracy of lexical analysis parsing semantics and correctness of query based on a large collection of annotated english sentences
application level tests in which the ability of the system to output the correct answer on a set of inputs is measured have been used in natural language processing for a number of
in our experiments we use a standard trigram tagger using deleted and used suffix information for handling unseen words as was
l6bner does not discuss the conditions under which a writer can assume that the reader can recognize that context creates a functional concept out of a sortal one but his account could be supplemented by clark and marshall s theory of what may count as a basis for a mutual knowledge induction schema
of the uses mentioned by hawkins the unfamiliar definites with unexplanatory modifiers and np complements need not satisfy any of the conditions that license the use of definites according to prince these definites are NUM in clark terminology one would say that different copresence heuristics can be used to establish mutual knowledge
to calculate the frequencies for the classes associated with we obtain from the co occurrence dictionary cod NUM the number of occurrences for w NUM c scod and cd are provided by japan electronic dictionary research
there is also research being done on the summarization of news articles to help people who read the network
we see this as one application of natural language processing technology as we progress toward a multimedia network
however in previous work we showed that autoslog ts achieved performance comparable to which performed very well in the muc NUM evaluation
another program which assists users in selecting articles they should read is the personalized electronic news editor
in a reply arrives at the opposite conclusion
in agreement in the german ng is described in the following way
on the one hand enquiry processor assigns an appropriate status to each of the attributes in the user s utterance from the set defined by and updates the statuses as the dialogue evolves
mine et al and hyodo and ikeda reported on the effectiveness of using dependency relations between keywords for retrieval
5w1h extraction was done by a case based shallow parsing cbsp model based on the algorithm used in the veniex japanese information extraction system
the indexes are stored in list form of predicates and arguments when who what why where how
the information access platform was exploited during the miidas multiple indexed information dissemination and acquisition service project which nec used internally
he does however provide the following analysis for a pseudo passive with a stranded preposition p NUM
a church style tin a few cases the loss oi prepositions presents a problem
in a spanish english bilingual dictionary is used to semi automatically link spanish and english taxonomies extracted from and
milt provides a robust model of errors from english speakers learning spanish and arabic identifying lexical and syntactic characteristics of short texts as well as low level semantic features a prerequisite for more sophisticated inferencing
one scheme which has as content grounding operated at a meso level of granularity and used non hierarchical and possibly discontinuous utterance sets as its structuring principle
the method for natural language generation implemented in d2s is hybrid in
hl the dutch speakers were asked to read aloud texts generated by the lgm of goalgetter
in addition pirelli ruimy document cases where pinker s narrow classes do not generalize to equivalent alternations in italian and french respectively demonstrating that cross linguistic disparities are similarly briscoe and copestake lexical rules insensitive to putative narrow classes
bauer 71f in supporting the view that lexical rules should be treated as fully productive generative rules analogous to those employed in syntactic description argues that it is this greater item familiarity of lexical items that allows judgements of relative novelty conventionality to be built up
in the lob corpus there are about NUM times as many instances of believe in the most common subcategorization class sentential complement as in the four least common classes combined and other multiple complement taking verbs show similar strong skews e.g. briscoe
an efficient algorithm has been which seeks growing series of such classifications
argue at some length for this position and and show how lexical defaults interact appropriately with nonmonotonic discourse reasoning within the formal framework of dice
this approach to deriving estimates of the productivity of lexical rules is applied to four denominal verb forma null briscoe and copestake lexical rules tion rules in where the probabilities of the basic and derived word forms are estimated from part of speech tagged textual corpora
there are ways in which we could extend the formalism to avoid this problem for instance by allowing specification which could be used to explicitly prevent inappropriate coindexation see lascarides for inequalities in the tdfs framework
similar to this work investigated how the language model can find the boundaries
in previous work we have shown that both distributional clustering and nearest neighbors averaging can yield improvements of up to NUM with respect state of the art backoffmethod in the prediction of unseen cooccurrences
preliminary work on a japanese corpus indicates that the model is not language specific
in the last several years there have been a number of studies on developing finite state parsing systems
systems like the one are much too open to be used for language learning
to induce a grammar from the sparsely bracketed training data previously described we use a variant of the inside outside re estimation algorithm proposed by
i here generalize these ranking criteria by redefining them terms
the coding scheme of was developed for mono
its development starts before NUM months old and is completed at around NUM months
in our experiments described below we compare the performance of our proposed method which we refer to as mdl against the methods proposed by and referred to respectively as la sa and tel
the third approach ratnaparkhi receives quadruples verb noun1 prep noun2 and labels indicating which way the pp attachment goes like those in table NUM and learns a disambiguation rule for resolving pp attachment ambiguities
nomlex a dictionary of nominalizations currently under development at nyu provides a way to handle nominalizations more automatically and with inominalizations are nouns which are related to words of another part of speech most commonly verbs
developed an algorithm tbr calculating adjacent n grams to an ar1 itrary large number of n
this paper focuses on this problem in the context of information extraction ie NUM many extraction systems use either parsing combined with some form of syntactic regularization or a meta rule mechanism to automatically match variants of clausal syntactic structures active main clause passive relative clause etc e.g. fastus and the proteus extraction
as for we can not make experiments since it is not freely distributed
elhadad draws a similar conclusion though his list of potentially argumentative relations is somewhat shorter
the importance of including such refutation in an argument has been conclusively demonstrated in social
as a result there has been considerable interest in extending the basic but prior to the work reported here the proposed extensions have not preserved the simplicity of the original results
the quantitative regularities is expected to be observed at this level because a large portion of terms is complex whose formation is and the quantitative nature of morphemes in terminology is independent of the token frequency of terms because the term formation is a lexical formation
in his seminal development of the mrf approach to spatial statistics besag introduced a pseudolikelihood estimator to address these and in fact our proposal here is an instance of his method
at such segment independent reference to syllable structure has been standardly assumed in the generative literature
in this study four lnre models were tried which incorporate the lognormal law the inverse gauss poisson law zipf s law and yule simon law
unfortunately the x NUM values show that the models have obtained the fits which are not ideal and the null hypothesis xnote however that the level of what is meant by the word performance is different is textoriented while here it is vocabulary oriented
with the correspondences between text and terminology sentences and terms and words and morphemes the present work can be regarded as parallel to the quantitative study of words in
phoenix performs a depth first search over its textual input while abney s chunking and attaching parsers
use a structural language model slm to incorporate the longer range structural knowledge represented in statistics about sequences of phrase headword non terminal tag elements exposed by a tree adjoining grammar
in this approach we first parse in the boolean semiring using the agenda parser described by shieber schabes and then we perform a topological sort
these models explicitly exclude multi word units from consideration however proposes a method for the recognition of multi word compounds in bitexts that is based on the predictive value of a translation model
3see and for a full account of these matters mealy automata are certainly a better choice when bidirectional applications are considered
null the choice of segment also remains contested ground in centering with mint linguists choosing for the sentence or argues for integrating centering with a more global model of discourse focus
the set of vo wxao lookma c r cj vi v represeats discourse entities evoked by an utterance ui in a discourse
scope orderinge in the logical representation of the antecedent utterance result in d fferences in the authors dedkate this paper to the memory a dedicated researcher and a very dear friend
in the case of reference resolution we are concerned with a wide range of referring expressions including anaphors pronouns referential auxiliaries like had names and definite descriptions
guisha them from unmarked anaphoric uses for m ple this is wh t worries me i c t get y xeli ble information
in this subsection we define and discuss semirings for an introduction
provide an early description of evaluations assessments
used wordnet to compute lexical cohesion according to the method suggested by morris morris and hirst NUM i and applied this to information retrieval
face the problem of correcting words in agglutinative languages
john contains presentations of various attribute selection approaches
a similar architecture which includes an additional layer is described in
in its most general setting the tbl hypothesis is not a
null expd expanded tftec NUM database consisted of approx NUM gbytes of documents from associated press newswire wall street journal financial times federal keglster fbis and other sources
note that the electronic dictionary ipal provides the information of volitionality for each japanese verb entry
the central tenet in centering theory is that discourse coherence of a text span increases and a reader s cognitive load decreases proportionately to the extent that discourse within the span follows two fundamental centering constraints grosz
for has argued that coordination is a phenomenon that requires resorting to a phrase structure model
at t labs added the machine learning technique of boosting to the query refinement phase of the cornell trec NUM routing algorithm which includes the use of word pairs dfo optimization and query zones
one of the conclusions reached in trec NUM was that the much shorter topics caused both manual and automatic systems trouble and that there were issues associated with using short topics in trec that needed further
the university of waterloo used passages of maximum length NUM words to select expansion terms whereas verity pedersen silverstein used their automatic summarizer for this purpose
swiss federal institute of technology eth mateev munteanu sheridan wechsler also performed a combination run where one component run selected query words and phrases based on the u measure
recently class phrase based models have gained some attention but usually it assumes a previous clustering of the words
in experiments performing an event categorization task found that different organizations are best for different properties
metaphor and idiom are and there is a great deal of syntactic and part of speech variation
the sparse architecture along with the representation of each example as a list of active features is reminiscent of infinite attribute models of
the experiments reported here were done using data extracted by from the penn treebank wsj corpus
two main modi ore orb pcb pce fications of were made to facilitate the comparisons at issue here
moreover shows that the equational constraints defined in NUM adequately chaxacterise the redundancy constraint which holds for both vpe and deaccenting
henceforth dsp present a treatment of vp ellipsis which can be sketched as follows
the left to right parsing determines the best structure and best transferred result locally by performing structural disambiguation using semantic distance calculations in parallel with the derivation of possible
as an example of a subtree plus decision rules see figure NUM taken from alexandersson et ai NUM
the source expression of the transfer knowledge is expressed by a constituent boundary pattern which is defined as a sequence that consists of variables and symbols representing constituent
we rely on gsearch to provide moderately accurate information about verb frames in the same way that relied on fidditch to provide moderately accurate information about syntactic structure relied on simple heuristics defined over part of speech tags to deliver information nearly as useful as that provided by fidditch
b m o our data r w
in the multiclass case in which more than two labels are possible there are many possible extensions of adaboost
however the problem of grammar size in tag has to some extent been addressed both with respect to grammar encoding and parsing
as for agreement features there are two cases to consider if the conjunction is and the number feature of the whole phrase is plural if the conjunction is or the number feature is the same as the last conjunct
a similar log based informationlike measurement was also employed in to measure semantic similarity
these data sets were based on the wall street journal corpus in the penn treebank
we employ a revised version of lovins stemming which is implemented in smart
ffinally the hierarchical intention structure proposed for a more general multiple participants discourse is a key part of the well accepted discourse theory of grosz
more advanced pitch accent models make use of other information such as part of speech given new distinctions and contrast
computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM tion of these with the dative alternation
the second experiment is done for three small manuals of three models of video cassette produced by the same company
where o is a weight on n ci are the cost functions which are weighted by wl and af is a z score normalization function
the avm matrix supports calculating task success objectively by using the kappa statistic to compare the information in the avm that the users filled in with an avm key such as that in table NUM
although particularly suited to concatenative morphology this approach has been extended to other types of morphologies and more precisely to templatic morphology among others
helping paradigms have the concrete syntax in NUM h p name i phon string of characters lcb type labels variable instantiation rcb as wholes and affixes do not have any meaning independently of
in natural language processing in general the robustness issue comprises the ability of a software system to cope with input that gives rise to deficient descriptions at some descriptional layerj more or less implicit is the assumption that the system exhibits some kind of monotonic behavior the less deficient the description the higher the quality of the
where binding category denotes the next dominator containing some kind of and binding is defined as coindexed and ccommanding null definition NUM thec command relation surface structure node x c commands node y if and only if the next branching node which dominates x also dominates y and neither x dominates y y dominates x nor x y
the practical contribution of n however is reduced in a reasonable implementation the conjunction or disjunction of w bits w processor word length zdegthe optimal choice of preference factors and weights remains to be investigated at least some of the criteria which have been investigated by do not immediately generalize to deficient syntax
among the most promising practical work are approaches relying on the availability of syntactic surface structure by employing coindexing restrictions salience criteria and parallelism heuristics
indeed the availability of multiple potential alignments is the keystone proposal to implement the comparative method which could not be implemented at the time kay proposed it because of the lack of an efficient search algorithm
in contrast to these approaches relying on monolingual indicators alone proposes to assign definiteness during the transfer process
a more detailed description of the methods used and a full list of the rules can be found
as proved in clls extends the expressiveness of context unification
it s with such works and many others later that intelligent tutoring systems architecture was more or less separated into four modules an expert s model a learner s model a teacher s model and an
for example the icicle project is based on l2 learning theory alexia and fluent are based on constructivism mr collins is based on four empirical studies in an effort to discover student errors and their learning strategies
for extensions of this multi tape
because the s list and bfp algorithms do not allow resolution of quoted text all quoted expressions were removed from the corpus leaving NUM to be resolved
NUM this framework was originally introduced into nlp in
word sense disambiguation wsd has been found useful in many natural language processing nlp applications including information retrieval machine translation dagan and
roget s has been used as the sense division in two recent more or less as is except for a small number of senses added to fill gaps
reviews notions of similarity and their impact on information retrieval techniques
proper nouns are identified using the alembic tool set
collocation collocations were extracted from a seven million word sample of the longman english language corpus using the association ratio and outputted to a lexicon
segmentation points indicating a change of subject were determined by the agreement of three or more test subjects
previous work has identified the breaks between concatenated texts to evaluate the performance of text segmentation
hearst incorporated semantic information derived from wordnet but in later work reported that this information actually degraded word repetition
an error margin of two sentences either side of a segmentation point was allowed three sentences
a problem with using word repetition is that inappropriate matches can be made because of the lack of contextual information
some examples of language reuse include collocation the use of entire factual sentences extracted from corpora e.g. toy story is the academy award winning animated film developed by pixar and summarization using sentence
in to appear we show how the conversion of extracted descriptions into components of a generation grammar allows for flexible re generation of new descriptions that do n t appear in the source text
actually it is very similar with information retrieval ir henceforth especially with the so called passage retrieval
in fact in most previous work in lexical semantics it is done
other techniques to speed up the parser are proposed in
figure NUM shows the architecture of our grapheme to phoneme converter integrated with the hybrid pos tagging system
template is ore model for the kind of information that we are attempting to extract who does what to whom and when and where
this was true in NUM cases s for comparison report an accuracy of about NUM when only the top candidate is counted
proposed a number of measures such as the cosine coefficient the jaccard coefficient and the dice coefficient see also
this collection was first introduced in and it is described in section NUM this collection is quite small for current ir standards it is only slightly bigger than the time collection but offers a unique chance to analyze the behavior of semantic approaches to ir before scaling them up to trec size collections where manual tagging is unfeasible
it is estimated that only NUM of the word stems in wordnet can be viewed as true homonyms unrelated senses while the remaining NUM polysemy can be seen as predictable extensions of a core sense regular polysemy
the tokenization process consists of splitting an input string into tokens i.e.
temporal discourse markers such as after before or while are commonly described as triggers for discourse relations expressing a temporal relation
other inflectional schemes and exceptions are described in and can be easily added to the regular grammar if needed
our results indicate that a word sense disambiguation can be more beneficial to information retrieval than the with artificially ambiguous pseudo words suggested b part of speech tagging does not seem to help improving retrieval even if it is manually annotated c using phrases as indexing terms is not a good strategy if no partial credit is given to the phrase components
working in the framework of systemic functional grammar sfg and employ spl as an intermediate description but they emphasize the integration of the spl construction process into sfg
our model has much in common with though our linguistic representations are relatively impoverished
systems which map natural language query phrases onto database access query statements provide a natural communication environment
jackendoff is concerned with this problem for a number of alternations specifically in his framework of lexical conceptual structure lcs he seeks to explain the relationships between stafive inchoative and causative readings of a verb
church on the other hand uses a probabilistic model automatically trained on the brown corpus to locate core noun phrases as well as to assign parts of speech
where our treatment of ellipsis and anaphora was developed argues that link chains yield the best explanation for the distribution of strict sloppy readings involving many pronouns
the bracketed portions of figure NUM for example show the base nps in one sentence from the penn treebank wall street journal wsj corpus
table NUM shows how phones are classified according to these acoustic features from and
our parallelism constraints and their equality up to constraints have been shown to be non trivially intertranslatable if binding and linking relations in a structures are ignored
however this work fail to make use of defaults which would significantly reduce redundancy in lexical specifications and would enable them to elegantly express sub regularities
this property is shared by the to associate hpsg signs with sequences of constituents also called word order domains
it is based upon wolpert s
furthermore yadu supports the definition of inequalities which are used to override default reentrancies when no conflicting values are defined in the types involved
t t i n d for a more detailed introduction to yadu see
current systems handle aggregations decisions including coordination and lexical aggregation such as transforming propositions into modifiers adjectives prepositional phrases or relative clauses in a sentence planner scott
in this work the decision was based on a notion of focus of if an entity was the focus of the previoussentence and is the focus of the current sentence then use a pronoun
in particular both suggest that a full noun phrase might be generated at discourse segment boundaries when a pronoun might have been adequate in dale s sense
acts as a central point for dialogue troubleshooting after
such charactercharacter dialogues have been produced by several researchers including
this conjecture is consistent with that the units that contain referees to which anaphors can be resolved are determined by the nuclearity of the discourse units that precede the anaphors and the overall structure of discourse
idioms and metaphors abound in everyday language and are found in texts spanning many genres see e.g. for a numerical estlm te of the frequency of idioms and fixed expression
further references are or for an introduction chapter NUM
cqp NUM NUM NUM is a high performance corpus query processor developed at ims
a large number of different kinds of ambiguities are to be resolved simultaneously in performing any higher level natural language
in unification and constraint based feature structure representations of feature sharing is possible but still the feature uniqueness postulate would have to be relaxed in order to nmke use of this mechanism
since the classifier used in tbl without inter dependence can be represented as a linear it is perhaps not surprising that snow performs as well as tbl
wordnet is designed to enable conceptual search and therefore it should provide a way of linking word level senses as those in dictionaries with semantic classes as those in thesauri
but before it would be fair to compare with other methods for inducing constraint grammars from annotated corpora e.g. the methods described ill or in it remains to determine the optimal set of templates and the optimal settings of the accuracy threshold
thus we take an interlanguage view of the acquisition and attempt to model how the student s grammar is likely to change over time
these three disciplines have in common the operation of natural language processing techniques which thus can evolve synergically
constituency and dependency a brief revisit it was shown already quite early in the discussion of constituency vs dependency that dependency representations and constituency representations are at least weaidy
d subordination is p NUM
of course all errors or mistakes in this paper are mine proposed and elaborated the term interlanguage to explain the unique utterance of l2 learners
an a templatic treatment of mh prosodic morphology was first 40ff NUM
each boundary which is a minimum of the cohesion graph was weighted by the sum of the differences between its value and the values of the two maxima around it as
to deal with this coda neutralization phenomenon i propose the following feature alignment constraints NUM let us see how such il pronunciation is obtained in terms of ot
here is an example of a text marked up with named in an article on the named entity recognition competition part of remarks that common organization names first names of people and location names can be handled by recourse to list lookup although there are NUM
the basic gazetteers in the isoquest system for mucdeg7 contain NUM NUM names but show that system performance does not degrade much when the proceedings of eacl NUM gazetteers are reduced to NUM NUM and NUM NUM names conversely they also show that the addition of an extra NUM entries to the gazetteers improves performance dramatically
proposed a mechanism for predicting how a hearer s beliefs will be altered by some communicated beliefs
city university london explored iterative methods of term weighting with the goal of avoiding overfitting
many researchers mckeown have argued that information from the user model should affect a generation system s decision on what to say and how to say it
we will use the term to refer to the kinds of negotiation reflected in our transcripts in which each agent is driven by the goal of devising a plan that satisfies the interests of the agents as a group instead of one that maximizes their own individual interests
although in the collaborative planning dialogues we analyzed this constraint did not seem to pose any problems in certain other domains such as the appointment scheduling domain the agents may be more likely to explore several options at once instead of focusing on only one option at a time
the proof is basically similar to the case of logic programming and is
the associative lambek is perhaps the most familiar representative of the class of categorial formalisms that fall within the type logical tradition
the s cond exemplified by bos buitelaar relies primarily on augmenting the lexicon annotating for each noun its possible meaningful relations
most information access systems require the user to execute and keep track of tactical moves often distracting from the thought intensive aspects of the
following a list of very unlikely readings for certain words was produced lexicai rules
we are interested in an important problem in molecular biology that of automating the discovery of the function of newly sequenced genes
the statement of the compilation procedure here is somewhat different to that given which is based on polar translation functions
the intent is to build up enough strategies that the system will begin to be used as an assistant or ranking hypotheses according to projected importance and plausibility
referents resolution can not be done without an additional context
in example 6d the relevant generalisation involves possible worlds associated jointly with the modality of the first clause and then
in fact these differences seem to resemble the range of differences in the information or familiarity of referential nps
it is our experience that lazy learning such as the memory based learning approach adopted here is more effective for several language processing problems for an overview than more eager learning approaches
while not defining a specific overall contour as this trend clearly indicates increased pitch accentuation
while eliminative approaches are quite customary for part of speech and underspecified structural it has hardly been used as a basis for full structural interpretation
for example one can ignore infrequent collocations entirely e.g. ng lee consider only the single best property or ignore negative evidence i.e. the absence of a property
primarily cat is aimed at consonant articulation which is also the main concern of speech clinicians see who state that vowels are mastered earlier than
most of the previous work in mlir has used simple dictionary term translation within the vector space
what we concern here is to evaluate the dissimilarity between different categories including those within one medium category so we make use of semantic code based vectors to define their dissimilarity which is motivated by shuetze s word frequency based
a manual effort has been made to build a resource for english i.e. wordnet which contains both definition and classification information but such resources are not available for many other languages e.g.
w assume familiarity with theories of feature structure based unification grammars as formulated by
and the operation of state of the art finite state tools e.g. karttunen
in order to determine the sub hierarchies that should be used for vl and nj we used statistics provided by semcor a sense tagged version of the brown corpus miller containing NUM NUM words
has used an unsupervised learning method based on the minimum description length principle to learn the morphology of a number of languages
examples are the dial your disc dyd system which presents information in english about mozart compositions and the goalgetter system which presents spoken monologues in dutch about the course and the result of a football game
the coreference annotation scheme used in muc NUM was devised to evaluate the ability of the systems participating in the competition to identify which elements in the text referred to the same object hence the term coreference
choice and ordering of the templates and the filling of their slots depend on conditions on NUM the knowledge state which keeps track of which information has been expressed and NUM the context state in which various aspects of the context are represented
al we run our system on part of the spanish version of the blue book corpus
NUM count the frequency of each rewriting rule on the whole learning corpus the word based NUM gram model for bunsetsu generation and the character based NUM gram model as an unknown word model are common to the pos based model and class based model
as for a parser based on a class based reports better accuracy than the above lexicalized models but the clustering method is not clear enough and in addition there is no report on predictive power cross entropy or perplexity
those properties that hold for some analyses of a particular utterance but not for others i will refer to as discriminants
null present a scheme for selecting corpus sentences whose judging is likely to provide useful new information rather than those that merely repeat old patterns
however unlike the we assume that syntactic and lexical semantic features are independent
also studied a method for learning dependencies between case slots and reported that dependencies were discovered only at the slotlevel and not at the class level
this section describes how we apply the maximum entropy modeling approach of della and to model learning of subcategorization preference
as the training and test corpus we used the edr japanese bracketed which contains about NUM NUM sentences collected from newspaper and magazine articles
this was done because of fraurud s observation that distinguishing the two classes is
generalizes this idea with good results we will return to this work later
our notion of favorite argument differs from the notion of core thematic role in at least three respects
fred ate the beans points out proposals for intonation structure which is the reflex of information distribution in spoken mode that try to deal with this divergence either come up with very complex derivations of intonational structure from a surface syntactic structure or they stipulate two autonomous levels of representation
our system detects quoted sentences by investigating the correspondence of sentences between two articles related to each other such as a parent child relationship
in the next section these observations are illustrated discussing coordinate structure in word grammar wg information structure in combinatory categorial grammar ccg and agreement in head driven phrase structure grammar hpsg
the two level approach of morphology is
both here and in associated work we have endeavored to show how all current annotation formats involve the basic actions of associating labels with stretches of recorded signal data and attributing logical sequence hierarchy and coindexing to such labels
the natural language processing techniques used in this system are well known including in information retrieval strzalkowski perez
NUM brennan friedman call these transitions shifting and shifting NUM
the more figurative names were introduced by walker iida
the nlp component has been installed with a proprietary ir engine photofile flank martin flank garfield at several commercial sites including picture network international pni simon and schuster and john deere
in addition although the process of plan construction provides an important context for interpreting utterances trying to formalize this mental activity under a data structure approach results in a model that conflates recipes
the first word inside a basenp immediately following another basenp receives a b tag
in a set of transformational rules is used for modifying the classification of words
uses a related method but they only store pos tag sequences forming complete basenps
introduce memory based sequence learning and use it for different chunking experiments
incorporated repair resolution into a word based language model
the grammars use minimal recursion semantics as the semantic representation formalism allowing us to deal with ambiguity by underspecification
as a consequence only one adjunction can take place on an elementary node as is prescribed by the tree adjoining grammar formalism
in it was shown that sense discriminations extracted from the test collections may enhance text retrieval
i use the following guidelines for the hand simulated
9i restrict inferrables to the cases specified by
the current prototype system has been used hehvily for substantive phonological fieldwork and analysis on the field documented
the corresponding informational relations are generates and
infants at this stage tend to take an unknown label as a category name of a physical object and then apply the label to other objects with similar
also in some non human primates show
we conform to the method proposed in for computing actual and expected agreement
pcfg parsing systems often perform as well as other simple broad coverage parsing system for predicting tree structure from part of speech pos
the rules for determining givenness are based on the theory proposed who distinguishes two kinds of givenness object givenness and conceptgivenness
proposed the use of the lexical association measure calculated based on such doubles
it is a particular mixture of syntactic template based techniques and full natural language generation described in more detail in
the prosody of the current version of goal getter was only evaluated informally but the results were in line with
we used the training sets test sets and evaluation method described NUM table NUM presents performance results
revisor used domain independent operators for revision of a text plan for explanation
the sentence planner uses rules to refine a single initial tree representation
passonnean argues for the use of the principles of information adequacy and economy
see for a discussion of this problem
for details on how this special case can be solved
furthermore focus might be marked by a confluence of prominence and requiring a relaxation of the assumption that these events are independent
we also compared the results and the result using previous method
yokoi also proposed a topic identification method using co occurrence of words for topic identification
in speech synthesis applications each prosodic event can be realized by manipulating the acoustic signal according to a set of context based f0 and duration
an important related claim is that NUM only items in the cache are available for various discourse processes like the inference of NUM
again the advantage of decoding the entire sequence is that one is able to explicitly make use of the inter dependencies in the assignment of specific prosodic labels as in
to exploit the intrinsic hierarchical structuring of argument the current work makes use of abnlp a hierarchical planner based upon the concept of encapsulation whereby the body of an abstract operator contains goals rather than operators and further that the body of an operator is not opened up until an entire abstract plan has been completed i.e.
recently we introduced a class of labeled three dimensional tree like structures three dimensional tree manifolds NUM tm which serve simultaneously as the derived and derivation structures of tree adjoining grammars tags in exactly the same way that labeled trees can serve as both derived and derivation structures for cfgs
in related work this abstract structure is often lost certainly in coherence relation based nlg such as operational rst but also which captures some but not all of the commonly found argument structures and which fails to capture the hierarchical nature of argument
the reader is directed for a more complete treatment
for example found that intonational phrasing and pitch accent play a role in disambiguating cue phrases and hence in helping determine discourse structure
in the early seventies an extension to the context free languages was obtained by who established that the cfls were all and only the sets of strings forming the yield of sets of finite trees definable in the weak monadic second order theory of multiple successors wsns
several papers have discussed the first issue especially the problem of word alignments for bilingual corpora
this process can be performed automatically using a relevance feedback method with the relevance information either supplied manually by or otherwise guessed e.g. by assuming top NUM documents relevant etc
several groups lu ayoub namba igata horai nitta have tried clustering the top retrieved documents in order to more accurately select expansion terms and in trec NUM three groups city university at t and irit successfully got information from negative feedback i.e. using non relevant documents to modify the expansion process
johnson demonstrated that rewrite rules as used by linguists had only finite state power and could be implemented as finite state transducers this important result unfortunately overlooked at the time and later rediscovered by see also is a key mathematical foundation for finite state morphology and phonology
the xerox implementation of finite state morphology includes a complete range of fundamental algorithms concatenation union intersection complementation etc plus higher level shorthand languages such as twolc and replace
however this model maintains projectivity and consequently both multiple heads and extended nuclei which are essentially phrase level units are used in complex cases making the model broadly
our current work argues for a dependency grammar that is conformant with the original formulation in and contains the following axioms the primitive element of syntactic description is a nucleus
two groups lexis nexis lu meier rao miller and mds performed major experiments in the use of passages particularly when employed in conjunction with other methods as input to data fusion
in contradistinction to sgall s claim mel p NUM has provided some evidence where the morphological marker appears either in the head or the dependent element in different languages as in the russian kniga professor a professor s book and its hungarian equivalent professzor ksnyv e
our parsing system called the functional dependency grammar fdg contains the follow null ing parts the lexicon the cg NUM morphological and the functional dependency grammar tapanainen and j
8example it is a phenomenon consistent with 9example president el ect ldega considerable number of the earlier studies were p NUM who also claimed that tesni re was one ol the first who used dependency graphs in syntax
we can conclude our argument by stating that the reason to reject constitutional grammars is that the formal a discontinuous sequence is a constituent il in some environment the corresponding continuous sequence occurs as a constituent in a construction semantically harmonious with the constructions in which the given discontinuous sequence occurs
hood leaving one out likelihood mutual information and entropy
the work of also deals with plain texts
the first author has reviewed existing computational lexicon models and showed that despite their differences they all subscribe to the same meaning theory namely sense enumeration
as explained previously the c m y m x m counts are the parameters defining our model making our procedure similar to a rigorous em approach
for the time being we adopt the interpretation of lehmann and wille who state that the object g is a f irst to which the attribute m is a s econd
identify metonymy as using one entity to refer to another that is related to it
english nominals have several argument positions that can map into the basic verb arguments subject direct and indirect objects cf for a computational treatment
we show that discourse structure need not bear the full burden of conveying discourse relations by showing that many of them can be explained nonstructurally in terms of the grounding of anaphoric presuppositions
it has been compurationally feasible in practice
in addition to salience preference a statistically modeled iexical preference is exploited in by comparing the conditional probabilities of co occurrence patterns given the occurrence of candidates
specifically we have argued that the notion of anaphoric presupposition that was introduced by to explain the interpretation of various definite noun phrases could also be seen as underlying the semantics of various discourse connectives
this algorithm is shown in figure NUM and it can deal with pronominal anaphora surface count anaphora and one anaphora as is
in fact i will leave many of these issues aside for the purposes of this paper i will not examine the empirical adequacy of ct for which the reader is referred to papers cited above and others collected in
however according to a more common method of structuring text is to make use of discourse relations such as those described by which do not explicitly take continuity of reference into account
to avoid introducing too many complications i shall assume a ucanonical formulation of ct as outlined by chapter NUM and the schematic consensus generation architecture described by reiter
we draw our terminology for describing specific personality traits e.g. likeable conscientious and emotions e.g. gratitude liking from existing
in fact it is an open research question whether ct should operate in this manher or whether the rules should be reformufated to take account of dominance in addition to precedence di erent positions are and
question the canonical ordering of transitions partly on the grounds that this ordering fails to predict the p tain shift pattern which has been claimed by many researchers to signal a segment boundary or the introduction of a new discourse topic
for formulated general rules for describing how one person expressing one trait e.g. merciful can lead to another person expressing a symmetric and complementary trait e.g. appreciative
the importance of viewing utterances as not simply statements of fact but also as real actions speech acts with consequences has long been well
furthermore although dsp only apply their analysis to vp ellipsis they have in mind a much broader range of applications many other elliptical phenomena and related phenomena subject to multiple readings akin to the strict and sloppy readings discussed here may be analyzed using the same techniques page NUM
the first problem is navigational users often report losing track of the current audio and being unable to determine the sequence and structure of different elements of the audio
elvis is implemented using a general purpose platform for spoken dialogue agents
it has been proposed that a pipeline architecture is not an adequate model for
NUM generation in a speech to speech system the syntactic generation algorithm and the preprocessing steps presented in this paper are integrated into the verbmobil system bub
the argument is that benefits to parsing arise from lexicalization and that lexicalization is only possible because of the edol
j this result has been criticised to apply only to impoverished dgs which do not properly represent formally the expressivity of contemporary dg variants and our use of a context free backbone with further constraints imposed by dependency relations further supports the view that dg is not a notational riant of context free grammar
the existing approach for correcting the spelling error in the languages that have no word boundary assumes that all substrings in input sentence are error strings and then tries to correct
local semantic constraints can be added to this algorithm as in
see for descriptions of the lfg formalism NUM
the collocations have been calculated according to the method described in by moving a window on the texts
yarowsky reports that there are uses not listed in roget s for NUM of NUM nouns in his wsd study while uses which a native speaker might consider as a single sense are often encoded in several roget s categories
on the other hand according to the data driven approach a frequency based language model is acquired from corpora and has the forms of decision or neural
classification of the function of citation within researchers papers
then we calculate feature vectors feava using freqv using the method mentioned in our previous paper
a preliminary such study asking subjects for judgments on parallel texts with and without the then is
simply because names are necessarily if they are to be useful comprised of regular suggestive natural language words they can too often cloud the mind to the possibility that there are many different ways to realize the same conceptual content see e.g. this is something always to be guarded against
however our system is the unsupervised learning with small pos tagged corpus and we do not restrict the word s sense set within either binary senses yarowsky or dictionary s homograph
this could be taken care of by adding a bar level feature to the rules in fig l as in generalized phrase structure grammar gpsg
the bilingual dictionary from english to japanese was an inversion of the a free japanese to english dictionary
determined first the kappa coefficient with respect to the way judges assigned boundaries at the highest level of segmentation
null course material for computational linguistics exists primarily in the form of text books
is closer to a focusing based algorithm it considers very few of the focusing factors discussed in the previous section
then a domain independent broad coverage lexicon defined by such abstract underspecified classes can be used as a background lexicon in domain specific reasoning tasks such as information or as a general semantic lexicon for parsing as well as for many other nlp tasks that require contextual inferences
at last we adopt the description of the connective donc which is elaborated in terms of conditions of use and semantic effects in
jean was hitting her 5the translation of the ambiguous example 2a is not ambiguous in french where no causal interpretation is available 2b
as a matter of fact the choice of an appropriate form to express a cause relation between events has proved a non trivial
this interpretation often given as the default one for imp ps sequences is nevertheless only available when world knowledge does not exclude it 10a
the ccv conversion rules can model the fact easily but the conventional cc conversion rules can not model the influence of the vowels
the pos tagging system have to handle out of vocabulary oov words for accurate grapheme to phoneme conversion of unlimited vocabulary
the hybrid pos tagging system will not be explained in this paper and interested readers can see the reference
yarowsky describes a wsd method and an implementation based on roget s thesaurus and a very large corpus the NUM million word grolier s encyclopedia
this practice was p NUM who claimed that the main research of descriptive linguistics and the only relation which will be accepted as relevant in the present survey is the distribution or arrangement within the flow of speech of some parts or features relative to others
zernik notes that the dictionary dichotomy of senses is inadequate for wsd because it is defined along grammatical not semantic lines
the current implementation of topsense uses the topical information in the longman lexicon of contemporary english to cluster ldoce senses
that can be produce d from the same input is seriously limited under this approach see stede and therefore moose opts for a complete separation of dm and um they are distinct taxonomies
such a glosser may be used as a tool for second language improvement and thus provide an educational alternative to the passive consumption of a usually low quality translation
pustejovsky treated vendlerian accomplishments and achievements as transitions from a state q y to not q y and suggested that accomplishments in addition have an intrinsic agent performing an activity that brings about the change of state
other work in automatic lexical semantic classification has taken an approach in which clustering over statistical features is used in the automatic formation of classes
clls extends the expressiveness of context unification cu but it leads to a more direct and more structured encoding of semantic constraints than cu could offer
our model is based on the collaborative planning framework of sharedplans lochbaum
moreover lie and stand could be translated as se tenir couchg allongd be lying and se tenir debout be up respectively thus presenting a case of divergence or they could both be translated into french as se tenir thus presenting a case of conflation
nizes the initiation of a new discourse segment it must determine the relationship of that segment s dsp to the other dsps underlying the discourse
clls subsumes dominance constraints as known from syntactic processing with tree adjoining
we plan to evaluate additional cooperative response strategies in toot e.g. intensional summaries summarization and constraint elicitation in isolation and to combine toot data with data from other agents
japanese news texts are read at the speed of between NUM and NUM characters per minute and if all the characters in the texts are shown on the tv screen there are too many of them to be understood well
the texts were annotated manually for co reference relations of identity ith
for a categorical variable c it searches over questions of the form is c e s where s is a subset of the possible values of c we also allow composite questions which are boolean combinations of elementary questions
reported recall and precision rates of NUM NUM and NUM NUM respectively which were obtained with insertion and deletion of boundary markers
empirical experiments that investigated the relation between discourse structure and reference also claim that by exploiting the structure of discourse one has the potential of determining correct co referential links for more than NUM of the referential although to date no discourse based anaphora resolution system has been implemented
the general idea is to first compare sequences two by two so as to measure their pairwise similarity based on the result of this operation an order of alignment is determined typically the most similar pairs will be aligned first the final multiple alignment is produced by gradually combining alignments see for example
hypergraphs p NUM are generalizations of ordinary graphs that allow multiple start and end vertices of edges
corresponding event a refers to as event object homomorphism
one one for carrying people early dictionary based work focused on the extraction of paradigmatic relations in particular hypernym relations e.g. car hypernym vehicle almost exclusively these relations as well as other syntagmatic ones have continued to take the form of relational triples
this deficiency limits the characterization of word pairs such as river bank and write pen to simple relatedness whereas the labeled relations of mindnet specify precisely the relations river part bank and write means pen
for instance demonstrate that a grammar learning algorithm with a simple constraint on binary branching cnf achieves less than NUM accuracy after training on an unbracketed corpus
multiplicative weight updating algorithms such as and weighted majority have been studied extensively in the colt literature
in processing genre such as technical or journalistic texts programs can take advantage of explicit discourse cues e.g. the first the most important to perform tasks such
inexperienced students require detailed instruction while experienced students benefit best from higher level reminders and explanations
our initial inability to segment topics in closed caption news text using thesaurus based subject assessments motivated an investigation of explicit turn taking signals e.g. anchor to reporter handoff
once all the parameters of a hmm are set we employ the viterbi to find an optimal accentuation sequence which maximizes the possibility of the occurrence of the observed ic or tf idf sequence given the hmm
in order to verify whether word informativeness is correlated with pitch accent we employ spearman s rank correlation coefficient p and associated to estimate the correlations between ic and pitch prominence as well as tf idf and pitch prominence
the speech corpus was transcribed orthographically by a medical professional and is also intonationally labeled with pitch accents by a tobi tone and break index expert
the underlying task is to determine the relative degree of well formedness among alternative sentences
a detailed description of how these segments are automatically extracted is provided elsewhere
presentational ideational vs interpersonal ideational vs
analyzed a corpus of financial planning dialogues for utterances that conveyed acceptance or rejection
developed a system that generates disambiguating and information seeking queries during collaborative planning activities
as reported morphological and semantic variations are two other important families of term variations which can also be extracted by fastr
tile second situation are tile ca ses of so called i iscourse di when tile anwcedent of n nonfimd expression is an ahstract object such as an event or prol osition introduced in the discourse somewhat indirectly by sentences
also describe a contributes relation between dsps that is the inverse of the dominates relation
the preceding example corresponds to a frequent situation of elliptic synonymy the notion of integrated
we do not consider mixed features between words and pos tags as in l that is a single feature consists of either words or tags
describe an algorithm based on a search
in this volume kurd is used in several components
the electronic ink is routed to a neural net based
model this integration using a unification operation over typed feature structures
wittenburg addresses the complexity issue by adding top down predictive information to the parsing process
however preprocessing can improve dramatically the time and space needed for the main compilation step since the preprocessor uses determinization and minimization algorithms for weighted to increase the sharing factoring among grammar rules that start or end the same way
since the grm library is compatible with the fsm general purpose finite state machine library we were able to use the tools provided in fsm library to optimize the input weighted transducers r g and the weighted automata in the compilation output
although his methods are clearly computational in nature connolly reported that he had not yet implemented them
we implemented the standard vector space model with cosine normalisation inverse document frequency idf and lexical stemming using the porter to remove suffix variations between surface words
contrairement aux environnements de specification des donn es linguistiques tels que eagles etc vdm permet de specifier ps la fois des traitements et des donn es dans notre contexte des donn es linguistiques et offre une m thodologie de d veloppement d applications se basant sur des raffinements et des transformations valid es
pour mesurer l impact de l utilisation des m thodes formelles dans le contexte du taln nous avons effectu la specification complhte et valid e du systhme cortexa correction orthographique des textes arabes d velopp au sein de notre laboratoire
this is also in agreement
as shown by these expectations can be calculated efficiently using dynamic programming techniques
in order to model intonational features automatically features from fuf surge and a speech corpus are provided as input to a machine learning tool called which produces a set of classification rules based on the training examples
then after all words have been assigned an initial value the final rules learned in experiment NUM are applied and the refined results are used to generate an abstract intonation description represented in the speech integrating markup language siml format
amin cursiveness introduced serious problems difficult to compensate even by additional processing
on an absolute basis our results improve on
roget s thesaurus in the work of or wordnet in the methods presented in b
the concept of value preserving grammar transformation is already known in the intersection of formal language theory
one type typea is that the disambiguation system executes interactions
finally both shieber schabes have shown how to specify parsers in a simple interpretable item based format
this allows the user to explicitly control which parts of the system execute and will be used when a final reference resolution techniques is chosen for integration into the trips system parser
our experiments created translation modules for two evaluation corpora written news stories from the penn treebank corpus and spoken task oriented dialogues from the trains93 corpus
this method is used by the trec program
the chart based semantic head driven cshd algorithm NUM of increases efficiency by using a chart to eliminate recomputation of partial results
this is in accord with previous literature on the contributions of noun phrase
the performance of the mxpost tagger is comparable with most benchmark pos taggers such as brill s
relaxes this dividing rules into chain rules with such a head processed bottom up and nonchain rules processed top down
note that link used to improve the efficiency of the algorithm is replaced by the hpsg head feature principle
design a unification based partial parser faster which analyses raw technical text while meta rules detect morpho syntactic variants of controlled terms blood cell blood mononuclear cell
also the use of other knowledge sources or different methods is necessary to increase precision rate and find links between more technical candidate terms
wrong links due to the polysemy can be easily eliminated with exception rules by comparing selectional patterns and generalized contexts
works on word similarity and word sense disambiguation are generally based on statistical methods designed for large or even very large
in order to filter out candidate page pairs that fail this test statistical language identification based on character n grams was added to the
regarding the validation by several experts it is well known that such validation would give different results depending on the background of each expert
by using morphological and part of speech modules the system are extended to the verbal phrases tree cutting tree have been cut down
to model clarification and correction subdialogues litman and allen propose the use of two types of plans discourse plans and
outside probabilities have many uses including for reestimating for improving parser performance on for speeding parsing in some formalisms such as and for good
investigated whether modeling linguistic segments segments with a single independent clause improves language modeling
NUM grosz and sidner s theory of discourse structure according to grosz theory discourse structure is comprised of three interrelated components a linguistic structure an intentional structure and an attentional state
their method bases attachment decisions on the ratio and zavrcl daelemans NUM veenstra NUM memory based pp attachment jakub zavrel walter daelemans resolving pp attachment ambiguities with memory based learning
to this end we use the modified value difference metric mvdm see a variant of a metric first defined in
details of the algorithm can be found in i
the concept of chunking was introduced by abney
these texts covered publications made
consider the following example from the trains corpus
we illustrate the utility of this approach with a treatment of dative constructions within a linguistic framework that borrows insights from the constraint based theories hpsg ucg zeevat and
these latter are semiproductive that is subject to blocking preemption by synonymy or by lexical form to arbitrary lexical gaps and to varying degrees of conventionalization for a recent discussion
this method also finds a tighter interval than the numerical method used in which was based on finding the left and right tails that each contained NUM NUM of the density
given the arguments in about the desirability of the symmetric form of default unification on the grounds of order independence it may seem surprising to suggest that an order dependent operation be the basis for the formalization of lexical rules
to obtain structures that are common in both languages a bilingual mutual information clustering algorithm wang lafferty was used as the clustering operator
it is based on the work in ries buc where the following two operators are used
in document retrieval the key technology is the utilization of keywords titles and user defined key words
the algorithm fits into the text planner of ilex
rank the cfaccording to the information status of discourse entities
a suite of perl programs generates the search form in html and processes the query
an online lexicon originally published as contains records with the format in figure NUM
while no localized neural implementation of this structure has been discovered there is strong evidence for the existence of a mechanism based upon several elementary features extracted from the image and unit activations within the map are computed from a weighted sum of feature map outputs giving a measure of conspicuity within each unit s receptive field NUM
it should be noted that many resultative constructions e.g. pound the metal flat also receive scalar readings making the phenomenon a fairly widespread one
focal attention is a sequential search through a series of progressively less salient locations selection being driven primarily from below saliency being determined from the contributions of elementary features extracted during the pre attentive phase
in contrast dispersed or feature based attention is spatially parallel but regarded as sequential within some feature space the selection relying upon some top down signal to highlight a particular conjunction of features
the current work preserves the global saliency map of but introduces feature based input to the map through the external channel of the previous paragraph as though the primitive object cell assemblies of it cortex were merely another feature map contributing to overall saliency
in this paper i will review and assess the recent centering approach to the interpretation of japanese zero pronouns as a case study and suggest that relevance theory can provide one way of complementing it
when generalizing we used the noun taxonomy of wordnet version as our thesaurus
related words have been located using spreading activation on a semantic although only one text was segmented
utilized the boolean formula minimization algorithm for combining the resulting set of call types based on a hand coded hierarchy of call types
attachment is by means of a number of interchangeable attachment rules which we have used to explore how different referential cues contribute to discourse
where it could have been used but is n t the deliberate choice of an alternative referring expression serves to the absence of continuity
we tested our morphological analyzer with two different corpora a atr travel which is a task oriented dialogue in a travel context and b edr which consists of rather general written text
for example work in predicting prominence by ross makes use of a markov assumption
therefore various quasi destructive and algorithms using skeletal dacs with have been proposed which attempt to minimize copying
as a step in this direction we consider a number of alternations that affect the aspectual category or aktionsart of the verb a NUM chose not to focus on
both the witten bell and good turing methods do not in themselves tell one how to share ci among 1in the method is referred to as method c for estimating the escape probability in a text compression method prediction by partial matching ppm
as hawkins points sociative clauses are not essentially different from the other uses mentioned in the last section hawkin s associative uses our bridging uses
gale church developed a topical classifier based on bayesian decision theory
black trained on high frequency local and topical context using a method based upon decision trees
in following freeman s attractive account of ig it may appear that the required convergent structure can be fully accounted for in the existing framework by allowing the standard iterative fulfilment of goals of belief discussed
for although their structure or at least the structure of any one instance can be represented in rst and elegant extensions even their hierarchical use in larger units adopting this approach necessitates a lower level view
first though only touched upon here the planning process produces a partially specified plan in which the underspecification is precisely that licensed by cohen like constraints on argument coherency appropriated from empirical studies in argumentation theory
in the first place points out motivation evidence justification cause solutionhood and other relations could all be used argumentatively as well of course as being applicable in non argumentative situations
some approaches directly exploit word distribution in the text
as far as we know only two recent papers have dealt with decoding problem for machine translation systems that use translation models based on hidden alignments without a monotonicity constraint berger et al NUM and
wsj pos is a fragment of the wall street journal part of speech tagged material marcus
the semantic processing uses a conceptual hierarchy and act templates that express semantic restrictions
in the last few years there has been a number of papers considering the problem of finding an efficient search
in the experiments described here we used cornell s smart version NUM
the comment is split again into focus and back ground see and vallduvf
as a side effect he used centering to define the utterance s theme and rheme in the sense of the functional sentence perspective
this task can be approached in a very principled way by stating general constraints on the grammatical compatibility of the expressions involved
university of toronto used their dynamic hypertext model to build the queries
while an improvement over simple destructive unification tomabechi s approach still suffers from what calls redundant copying
the unification algorithm used by the current system is a modification of tomabechi quasi destructive unification algorithm
for this purpose we apply to the input grammar an inversion procedure based upon to render tile rules with tile nested predicate argument structure corresponding to that of input logical forms
whereas phrase structure systems were defined by referring to chomsky s syntactic structures the corresponding definition for the dependency systems reads as follows by dependency system we mean a system containing a finite number of rules by which dependency analysis for certain language is done as described in certain rand publications hays
we employed a multi dimensional vector space called word for defining the coherence of words
in the parser proposed by utterances interrupted by the other dialogue participant are analyzed based on recta rules
the japanese to english dictionary was and the english to japanese dictionary was an inversion of the japanese to english dictionary
whereas several groups are working with the unadapted core dr scheme we have attempted to adapt it to our corpus and particular research questions
alization over constituents is achieved in an exactly analogous way to the way simple recurrent networks srns achieve generalization over the positions of words in a sentence
we were instead surprised that ad c s are a very common category among the antecedents of commit NUM the second commit appears to simply reconfirm the commitment expressed by the and does not appear to count as a proposal
our assessment is supported by comparing our results to those of who used the unadapted dri manual see table NUM overall our forward function results are better than theirs the non significant k for i on s in table NUM reveals problems with coding for that tag while the backward function results are compatible
to assess the import of the values NUM k NUM beyond k s statistical significance all of our k values are significant at p NUM NUM the discourse processing community uses NUM which disefor problem solving features k for two doubly coded dialogues was NUM
as pointed out by marcus santorini such a semi automatic annotation strategy turns out to be superior to purely manual annotation in terms of accuracy and efficiency
the main assumptions of the theory as presented by gross et a11995 gjw rare NUM
an exception is hahn strube treatment of bridging reference or textual ellipsis in their terminology
the workings of the parser module are similar to those of spatter
both and have enhanced the feature generation in various ways as described in this paper this was also done for snow
that algorithm has been applied for natural language disambiguation tasks and related problems and perform remarkably well
corelex cl the corelex was derived from wordnet as part of a linguistic research attempting to provide a unified approach to the systematic polysemy and underspecification of nouns
if we wish to log file evaluations also permit us to evaluate the system in a glass box approach evaluating individual system components separately
one of the main disadvantages of such enumerative lexicons is their inability to account for a phenomenon generally known as semantic flexibility see
NUM the second stage of the conversion is adapted from the first order compilation discussed earlier modified to handle directional formulae and using a modified indexation scheme to record dependencies 3the constants produced in the translation correspond to new string positions which make up the additional suborderings on which hypotheticals are located
the starting point for this work is the observation of certain similarities between categorial grammars and the d tree grammar dtg formalism of
a way to measure the effectiveness of the language model is to measure the perplexity that it assigns to a test corpus
proposed that speech repairs should be detected in a speech first model using acoustic prosodic cues without relying on a word transcription
the last takes account of the scope preferences of individual quantifiers such as the fact that each tends to have wider scope than all other quantifiers
the function argument hierarchy expresses that formal semantic information about a sentence which does not involve scope resolution e.g. semantic valency and association of referential terms with argument positions
null it will be shown that this model is both categorical enough to handle standard generalizations about quantifier scope such as bans on extraction from certain domains and fuzzy enough to present reasonable preference rankings among scopings and account for lexical differences in quantifier strength
extended a language model to account for three roles that words such as filled pauses can play in an utterance utterance initial part of a nonabridged repair or part of an abridged repair
this implementation of the autolexical account of quantifier scoping is written for swi prolog and inherits much of its feature based grammatical formalism from the code listings of including dagunify pl
the input of each process is a grammar defined by means of the grammatical formalism sug slot unification grammar
refers to two variants of ct version a based on and version b taken from
report fz i for subject and object identification of respectively NUM NUM and NUM NUM compared to NUM NUM and NUM NUM in this paper
we can also admit that lexical affinities between the diverse constituents of a unit can provide a good clue for termhood but le cal affinities or otherwise called collocations affect different finguistic units that need anyway be
we used a simple gui for our initial experiments rather than testing a complex set of possible search features for three reasons first data on accessing a real speech archive indicate that even highly experienced users make little use of sophisticated features such as scanning speed up slow down or jump forward back
we based our experiments on findings from a naturalistic study of over NUM voicemail users in which we identified a set of strategies people used to access a real audio archive and documented the problems users experience in accessing that archive whittaker hirschberg
alternatively it may attempt to prove theorems questioning the user for the missing facts that it needs to know in order to help him or her complete some complex task
we note however that simplicity and descriptive economy are not the only grounds for preferring one linguistic hypothesis to p NUM
in software engineering object orientation has proved to be an effective means of separating the generic from the specialized and more particularly of letting the specialized inherit the generic
its set of priorities permitting the system will perform a repair request on a negated value a repair confirm on a modified value a confirm on a value that is new to the system or has been inferred by the system and a spec on any value that requires the user to choose between one of several options
this partial parser supp described in works on unrestricted corpus that contains the words tagged with their obtained grammatical categories from the output of a part of speech pos tagger
our minimisation is performed initially using the sk strings method of and then reducing z the resultant automaton further with a
throughout the system we emphasize declarativity which is also a necessary precondition for a comprehensive off line preprocessing of external knowledge bases in particular the preprocessing of the underlying head driven phrase structure grammar hpsg see which has been developed at csli reflecting the latest developments in the linguistic theory and with a fairly wide coverage and also covering phenomena of spoken language
accordingly in recasting the problem as a tree search
word grammar is based on general graphs instead of trees
another important construct of lfg is functional uncertainty
the basic element of a systemic grammar a so called system is a type axiom of the form adopting the notation of cuf entry type l i type NUM i i type n
the resolution algorithm has been implemented in verbmobil in both the german semantic processing and the substantially smaller japanese one gamb
the original definition of s tag however had a greater generative capacity than that of its component tag grammars even though each component grammar could only generate tree adjoining languages tals an s tag pairing two tag grammars could generate non tals
this can be further verified in the perplexity measures for the word recognition compared to a general language model trained on non tagged dialogues perplexity decreases by NUM for a language model which is trained on topic dependent dialogues and by NUM if we use an open test with unknown words included as well
the underlying knowledge base comprising half a million semantic concepts includes automatically extracted information from NUM NUM encyclopedia articles from mcmillans planned publication dictionary of art combined with several additional information sources such as the getty art and architecture thesaurus the application is described in detail in
in this study all word pairs were derived from sentence aligned corpora of technical texts which were collected in the plug as part of the plug project NUM
there have been some approaches to the combination of statistical and linguistic methods applied to pos disambiguation to improve the accuracy of the systems
in the root of the tree a discounted good turing language model is computed
the twolc rule that maps an x coming either fl om roots like tmx or from patterns like form ix ccacax
we employed the maximum entropy tool made by which requires one to specify the number of iterations for learning
various approaches to word sense division have been proposed in the literature on wsd including NUM sense numbers in cowie NUM automatic or hand crafted clusters of luk department of computer science national tsing hua university hsinchu NUM taiwan roc
these relations are then used for various tasks ranging from the interpretation of a or a to resolving structural ambiguity to merging dictionary senses
wsd has received increasing attention in recent literature on gale
it is a nontrivial task to divide the senses of a word and determine this set for word sense is an abstract concept frequently based on subjective and subtle distinctions in topic register dialect collocation part of speech
we develop a restricted approach to lexical rules in a typed default feature structure tdfs framework which has enough expressivity to state for example rules of verb diathesis alternation but which does not allow arbitrary manipulation of list valued features
n gram part of speech are perhaps the most widely used of tagging algorithms
first we use standard tf idf a method that with various alterations remains at the core of many information retrieval and text matching systems
computational approaches are mostly concerned with inferring implicitly expressed metonymic relations in english hobbs are prominent representatives
this is also closely related to the approach used in categorial grammars the raising rule is simply the introduction of an implication see also joshi for such a relation and the way who can be defined
in this paper generated threads by this method are represented in extended markup language xml which is the proposed standard for exchange of information on the web
several experiments aligning edr and wordnet ontologies are described in
the possibility of using statistical methods to assign roget category labels to dictionary definitions has been
d tionary definitions of nouns are normally written such a way that one can identify for each headw the word being defined a genus term a w more general that the headword and these are lated via an is a
dictionary definitions of nouns are normally written in such a way that one can identify for each headword the word being defined a genus term a word more general that the headword and these are related via an is a relation bruce richardson NUM
ale provides relations and type constraints i.e. only types as antecedents but their unfolding is neither lazy nor can it be controlled by the user in any way
the motivation for and design ethos behind this project has been described previously in and wrigley
the best way to learn about corpus linguistics is to do it and the best way to teach corpus linguistics is to put students into a position where they can do it
system displays network NUM user ok now make an individual employee concept a sample
this has been successful in different domains and is in fact the approach used in recent commercial summarizers apple microsoft and inxight
NUM provide further discussion of the use of parsing in planning and plan recognition
this configuration in interaction with donc has been studied in where it is called causal abduction
both these problems require an account of the interface with pragmatics see copestake for one such account which integrates probabilistic information into pragmatic reasoning
we performed two different rounds of experiments the first with newspaper sets and the second with a broader set from the trec NUM collection
the way this effect operates can be described the following way assuming the usual partition of predicates into the aspectual classes
one of the most important properties of imp is that it imposes an imperfective durative non accomplished view on the
this is the class of definite descriptions for used the term bridging references NUM
this proposal is not novel and is the analog of proposals to associate probabilities with initial trees in for example a lexicalized tree
the denoted relation in this case concerns both the epistemic level attitudinal and the descriptive level propositional
such programs are effective because they exploit the fact that human beings tend to read much more meaning into what is said than is actually there we are fooled into reading structure into chaos and we interpret non sequitur as whimsical
we determine correlated bilingual classes by using the method described
admittedly this process is not infallible observation regarding misunderstanding in discourse nonetheless it can be carried out with relative sufficiency which primarily depends on the participants communicative competence and their expectation of the discourse
second focus as occurs in discourse is best captured by referring to both the interlocutors cognitive computation and constant interaction in accordance with the dual i.e. cognitive and pragmatic nature of discourse per
more has been concerned with the problems introduced by discourses containing subdialogues
discourse entails the employment and deployment of the knowledge store but in a specific discourse only a subset of it deemed relevant to the on going discourse is incurred given the economy principle of human cognitive
borrowing the notion of we distinguish three zones i.e. activated zone az semi activated zone saz and inactivated zone iaz within the dm NUM similar to the case of the dm ks relation the boundaries between the three zones are fluid rather than fixed as is evident in figure NUM
in grosz definitions conditions of the form in iii depend upon the constraints under which an act fli is to be performed
examples of formalisms using this approach include the
for noun phrases we employ abney s chunk grammar
speaking of the dependency refers to the soviet work on machine translation using the dependency theory of kulagina et al
null each nucleus is a node in the syntactic tree and it has exactly one ch NUM NUM
in fact the ability to trigger this very kind of coercion seems to be a general property of verbs addressing their arguments through their formal role i.e. requiring natural types centrally defined through their const and formal and not functional types centrally defined through their agentive and
each noun with a possible semantic class of act or process in wordnet and that noun s arguments can likewise be deemed a base level clause
estate or property seen as land surfaces or quantity of matter nouns such as gold or milk see winston offer other interesting properties w r t to incrementality atomicity
for a model of a dg based on tree rewriting in the spirit of tree adjoining grammar
call routing is similar to topic identification and document in identifying which one of n topics destinations most closely matches a caller s request
vector representation to reduce the dimensionality of our vector representations for terms and documents we applied the singular value decomposition to the m x n matrix b of weighted term document frequencies
this knowledge base is also accessible from the user s query interface
discursive formulations on these observations the main tenets of the model of text architecture these formulations are perceived as equivalent because they are interpreted as performing the same text act here organising and defining
they argued that in the information retrieval dialogues they analyzed in no cases does negotiation extend beyond the initial belief conflict and its immediate resolution NUM thus they do not provide a mechanism for extended collaborative negotiation
the collaborative planning principle in suggests that conversants must provide evidence of a detected discrepancy in belief as soon as NUM
the processing model our system uses transformation based error driven learning to automatically learn rules from training examples
for a summary of the project and its relation to previous attempts to build stochastic models of dialog structure e.g.
moreover automatic feature weighting in the similarity metric of an mb learner makes the approach well suited for domains with large numbers of features from heterogeneous sources as it embodies a smoothing by similarity method when data is sparse
this is because the top level proposed belief is the main belief that ea the executing agent is attempting to establish between the agents while its descendents are only intended to provide support for establishing that belief young
the system in only finds a subset of the surface subjects and objects
in this paper we concentrate on evaluating gtu s features comparing them to some other workbenches that we have access to mostly gate and the xerox lfg workbench
NUM a small hand coded stem lexicon whose vocabulary has been tailored towards the test sentences this lexicon also contains selectional restrictions for all its nouns and adjectives NUM a fast morphology analysis program and NUM plod a full form lexicon that has been derived from the celex lexical database baayen piepenbrock
a model for the employment of grammar checks is the workbench for affix grammars introduced by which uses grammar checks in order to report on inconsistencies conflicts with well formedness conditions such as that every nonterminal should have a definition properties such as ll NUM and information on the overall grammar structure such as the is cmled by relation
bilingual automatic translation and the automatic acquisition of knowledge about translation
the first criterium is based on the simple observation that most alignment errors happen when the translation diverges from the usual pattern of one sentence translates to one sentence so we only con null sider points of agreement lying between l to1 to l islands
of course in the case of bilingual alignment it is common practice to restrict the search for instance to a narrow corridor along the main diagonal see for example
the guiding locality principle here is spatial locality programs typically need to access information instructions and data that have addresses near each other in memory
suggest to use akaike s information criteria aic to judge the acceptability of a new model
it is currently undergoing extensive user testing and evaluation
for a very common special case of these grammars where an o n NUM algorithm was previously the grammar constant can be reduced without harming the o n NUM property
our notation fol1other relevant parsers simultaneously consider two or more words that are not necessarily in a dependency relationship
tokens are automatically annotated with a list of part of speech pos tags using a computational morphological analyser based on finite state technology
it is necessary to use an agenda data when implementing the declarative algorithm of figure NUM deriving narrower items before wider ones as before will not work here because the rule halve derives narrow items from wide ones
these problems formulations are similar to those studied in respectively
describe a technique for crossdocument coreference which involves extracting the set of all sentences containing expressions in a coreference chain for a specific entity e.g.
our analysis has revealed several insights regarding individual indicators
performance results were obtained using the paradise evaluation framework determining the contributions of task success and dialogue cost to user satisfaction
we will use the paradise evaluation framework to analyze both task success and agent dialogue behavior related to subjective user satisfaction
f measure computes a tradeoff between recall and precision
zin addition for the noun group our definition encompasses the named entity task familiar from information extraction
solutions can then be approximated to any degree of precision using standard iterative methods as for instance those exploited
the best known publicly available corpus hand tagged with wordnet senses is semcor a subset of the brown corpus of about NUM documents that occupies about NUM mb
other pronominal resolution approaches promote knowledge poor either by using an ordered set of general heuristics or by combining scores assigned to candidate antecedents
the xtag system consists of a morphological analyzer a part of speech tagger a wide coverage ltag english grammar a predictive left to right earley style parser and an x windows interface for grammar development
kit and wilks provide an efficient method for deriving n ga ams of any where r is an index x r s represents the resul length and their counts from large scale corpora tant corpus by the operation of replacing all occur
the empirical methods employed in cocktail are an alternative to the inductive approaches described in and
there are also parsers that use probabilistic weighting information in conjunction with hand crafted grammars for example and srinivas doran
in this work we shall adopt the methodology first explicitly noted in connection with wsd and more recently namely that of bringing together a number of partial sources of information about a phenomenon and combining them in a principled manner
first researchers are divided between a general method that attempts to apply wsd to all the content words of texts the option taken in this paper and one that is applied only to a small trial selection of texts words for
the approach is related to some early ideas of the ocr of the isolated roman characters n tuples and character loci
first for each verb occurrence subjects and objects were extracted from a
for instance the to pp frame is poorly represented in the syntactically annotated version of the penn treebank
this allows us to compute the conditional probability as follows
pazzani proposes a cartesian product operator for joining attributes and compares its effects on generalization accuracy with those of attribute elimination for a o the naive bayes and pebls classifiers
many of the limitations of the analyses mentioned above are suggesting that definiteness is a feature of nouns base generated on the n stem
we show that there is no theoryindependent reason to apply the dph to hebrew on the contrary such accounts miss generalizations and yield wrong predictions
while forced to adopt a so called lean formalism in order to achieve acceptable efficiency nevertheless orients itself most closely to mainstream linguistic formalisms such as hpsg and lfg
a motivation for using a rather small window size can be found in page NUM where it is pointed out that sensible constraints referring to a position relative to the target word utilize close context typically NUM NUM words
as a comparison to these results a preliminary test of the brill tagger also trained on the stockholm umeps corpus tagged NUM NUM of the words correctly and oliver mason s qtag got NUM NUM on the same
the success of the constraint grammar cg approach to part of speech tagging and surface syntactic dependency parsing is due to the minutely hand crafted grammar and two level morphology lexicon developed over several years
allowing the rules to refer to specific morphological features and not necessarily a complete specification has increased the expressive power of the rules compared to the initial experiments
the developers of english cg report that NUM NUM of the words retain their correct reading and that NUM NUM of the words are unambiguous after tagging page NUM
using labels in a separate legend or key reduces the immediacy of the graphic and introduces interpretative problems as referencing
for comparison with other experiments
a natural approach to generation with head driven phrase structure grammar is to use a head driven algorithm
however head driven generation does not work with this inclusive logical form given the theory of
the third method is based on a path finding algorithm detailed in
NUM batches of features fully specified features have been learned
following and we coded a set of acoustic prosodic features to describe the utterances
to derive pitch features we first apply the f0 fundamental frequency analysis function from the entropic esps waves system to produce a basic pitch track
wordnet continue to be the focus of ongoing research
these measures may be viewed both as an attempt to create a simplified form of taylor s rise fallcontinuation and as an attempt to provide quantitative measures of pitch accent
alternative approaches described in and have emphasized acoustic prosodic cues including duration pitch and amplitude as discriminating features
coreferring expressions are to be linked using sgml markup with id and ref tags
this problem does not arise in the annotation graph formalism see NUM NUM
knott provide an apt summary of the situation
we do not elaborate the advantages further here see for example
a fast algorithm that parses regular expressions on full inverted text is presented
uses cascaded decision tree learning igtree for basenp recognition
a rule such as adjunct introduction which adds adjunct categories to the subcat lists of verb entries recursively creating a potentially infinite set of derived entries seems to us to be a clear example of a nonlexical unary syntactic rule
within the generative tradition of work on lexical rules the only alternative to treating such rules as fully productive generalizations is to treat them as redundancy rules of some form e.g. and see the discussion in section NUM
in sanfilippo s approach a constraint based encoding of categorial grammar e.g. zeevat is combined with dowty s proto thematic role theory and proto roles are interpreted as predicates holding between event and participant variables in a neo davidsonian semantic representation
to tackle these ambiguities we employs the techniques of hierarchical phrase analysis and word collocation both rule based and corpus based
the grammar for the german tutor is written in ale the attributed logic engine an integrated phrase structure parsing and definite clause programming system in which grammatical information is expressed as typed feature structures
for example the english sentence a is taller than b is expressed as presented in hanyu pinyin and cantonese in yueyu pinyin
average e mirror size the e mirror of a class e is the set of classes which have a translation probability greater than e
the inferred grammars are represented in the probabilistic lexicalized tree insertion grammar pltig formalism which is lexicalized and context free equivalent
secondly we expect refinement and revision of the initial coding manual nakatani will facilitate both greater reliability and utility of the two levels we do cover
in frameworks that incorporate alternative competing syntactic rule schemata or operations it might be necessary to associate probabilities with such rules and treat the probability of a derivation as the combined product of the probability of the syntactic operations applied and the lexical entries utilized
in this way prior knowledge of limited specificity may be employed through higher level recruitment to represent quite complex relations see section NUM NUM and
thus some functional replication of neural pathways ostensibly at the level of systems neuroscience becomes an essential aspect of architectural design and this is more readily accomplished through a top down approach
compared their trainable document summarizer results and similar amounts of leading text to manually constructed keys
in particular the fact that free variables only occur on the left hand side of our equations reduces the problem of finding solutions to higher order matching a problem which is decidable for the subclass of thirdorder
as a heuristic i started by searching for a list of NUM common prepositions which i estimate covered at least NUM of all raw occurrences of prepositional phrases the first six alone accounting for NUM according to mindt and reported
the hypernyms used to label the internal nodes of that hierarchy are chosen in a simple fashion pattern matching is used to identify candidate hypernyms of the words dominated by a particular node and a simple voting scheme selects the hypernyms to be used
levi has tried to find the semantic constraints which govern the combination of each noun in a nominal compound
then the worst case of applying the inference rules to f a x y to saturation turns out to be equivalent to completing the transitive closure of i which is known to be soluble in better than o n NUM time where n is the number of elements in the structure
when a sample is located in the lnre zone values of statistical measures such as type token ratio the parameters of laws of word frequency distributions etc change systematically according to the sample size due to the unobserved events
unlike the illfits of the growth curve of the models are not caused by the randomness assumption of the model because the results of the term level permutations used for calculating z scores are statistically identical to the results of morpheme level permutations
the task of the so called mieroplanning component is to plan an utterance on a phrase or including word choice section NUM
weir showed that there is an infinite progression of tag related formalisms in generative capacity between cfgs and indexed grammars
in lr k parsing a single lr state may correspond to several items or dotted rules so it is not clear how the feature unification constraints should be associated with transitions from lr state to lr state for one proposal
generalizing the left corner closure filter on pair categories to complex feature unification grammars in an efficient way is complicated and is the primary difficulty in using left corner methods with complex feature based grammars provides a detailed discussion of methods for using such a left corner filter in unification grammar parsing and the methods he discusses are used in the implementation described below
we have collected NUM test n1 no n2 phrases from edr dictionary japan electronic dictionary ipa dictionary information technology promotion and literatures on n1 no n2 phrases paying attention so that they had enough diversity in their relations
suggested using verb representations based lcss for nlg specific kinds of lcss are proposed to represent different classes of verbs on the basis of telicity
more specifically for nlg structure mappings between fine grained representations have been suggested for and nicolov mellish
support for this analysis who postulates a change in meaning when moving from one configuration to the other in b above sally causes the paint to move onto the wall whereas in a sally causes the wall to change its state by means of moving the paint onto it
for states that his approach to alternations deliberately avoids three difficulties the need to define a basic form from which alternations are produced the need to explain the relation between the basic form and the alternated one and the need to account for changes in meaning produced by the alternation
as the threshold decreases the detection rate increases however the false alarm rate
ehara found that compared with newspaper text tv news texts have longer sentences and each text has a smaller number of sentences
the switchboard corpus godfrey is a collection of human human dialogues which are much less constrained and about a much wider domain
using this it was shown in and spsnchez that a single step of the inside outside algorithm implies consistency for a probabilistic cfg
a galton watson branching is simply a model of processes that have objects that can produce additional objects of the same kind i.e. recursive processes with certain properties
found noticeable improvement in precision using sense based as opposed to word based retrieval
one candidate is strube reformulation of the notions of NUM content determination
these syllable roles are established in the first place by syllabification constraints that exploit local sonority differences between
as a consequence chomsky s crteda for a generative grammar which must be perfectly explicit and not rely on the intelligence of the understanding NUM are automatically fulfilled
finally although ot postulates that constraints are universal this metaconstraint has been violated from the outset e.g. in presenting tagalog um as a language specific parameter to align in
null the rest of this paper reviews in informal terms the section NUM showing in formal detail in section NUM how to implement a concrete analysis of modern hebrew verbs
also the formalization of x presented here is actually a special case of the more powerful notion of resequencing whose application to tigrinya vowel coalescence and metathesis was
linguistic and computational theories of bridging descriptions identify two main subtasks involved in their resolution first finding the element in the text to which the bridging description is related anchor and second finding the relation link holding between the bridging description and its
in one of our experiments we asked NUM subjects to classify the uses of definite descriptions in a corpus of english texts NUM using a taxonomy derived from the proposals
in order to get a system capable of performing on unrestricted text we decided to use wordnet wn as an approximation of a knowledge base containing generic information and to supplement it with heuristics to handle those cases which wn could n t handle
which co refer and have the same head noun and NUM NUM as larger prince s discourse the remaining definite descriptions were classified as idiomatic or doubtful cases
while it is usually assumed that the functional anaphor fa is ranked above its antecedent fa ante grosz NUM we assume the opposite
grosz joshi state that the items in the cf list have to be ranked according to a number of factors including grammatical role text position and lexical semantics
claritech corp evans huettner tong jansen performed a user experiment measuring the difference in performance between two presentation modes a ranked list vs a clustered set of documents
the inquery system from the university of massachusetts has worked in all trec s to automatically build more structure into their queries based on information they have mined from the
the automatically produced inquery phrase list was new for trec NUM the cornell list was basically unchanged from early trecs and the bbn list was based on a new bigram model
for w continuous semirings which includes all of the semirings considered in this paper an infinite sum is equal to the supremum of the NUM
the definitions of the features are equally primita c p NUM
there is a set of adnominal constituents which has the function of both adnominal and adverbial and the third relation c above is the adverbial semantic relation which holds between adnominal constituents and their head nouns
beeferman has developed a flexible interface and analysis tool for exploring certain kinds of chains of links among lexical relations within wordnet NUM however sophisticated new algorithms are needed for helping in the pruning process since a good pruning algorithm will want to take into account various kinds of semantic constraints
it is certainly of interest to a computational linguist that the words prices prescription and patent are highly likely to co occur with the medical sense of drug while abuse paraphernalia and illicit are likely to co occur with the illegal drug sense of this word
work on extending connectionist architectures for application to complex domains such as natural language syntax has developed a theoretically motivated technique called temporal synchrony variable binding
note that atoms of tone patterns like l in hl can be realized as sequences of high tone syllables as in fe lhmtl or as part of contour tones NUM as in mbps hence for tabu nyaha and felama there 12the ideas presented here owe much to the concept of incremental optimization
another effort is that of the darpa topic detection and tracking initiative
algorithms offer a way of globally finding optimal candidates out of regular candidate sets
ours is similar in the use of dependency relationship as the word features based on which word similarities are computed
i present a procedure to convert constraints on tones in constraints on corresponding segments
it is worth noting that i w r w is equal to the mutual information between w and w
gcrossover product a t is equivalent to the image of a under t NUM defined as the range of the composition id a o r where id a is the identity relation that carries every member of a into itself
coverage is one of the major problems in dictionary based approaches
furthermore compared to related framemerging strategies it provides a well understood generally applicable common meaning representation for the different modes and a formally well defined mechanism for multimodal integration
to estimate the probabilities for contexts that do not appear in the training corpus we used the good turing combined with katz s back
many distributional similarity measures can be
the output activation of this network represented the bayesian posterior probability that the pp of the encoded sentence attaches to the verb or not
as stated in the introduction is used as the interoperability standard in order for the different components to co operate
the consistency of the trec judgments was investigated at nist by obtaining multiple independent assessments for a set of topics and evaluating systems using each of the different judgment
the completeness of the trec relevance judgments has been investigated both at and independently at the royal melbourne institute of technology rmit
claxitech corporation milic frayling zhai tong jansen explored the benefits of using different term selection methods in different parts of the query refinement process
queens college cuny kwok grunfeld combined results from five separate component runs this combined result is superior to each of the individual components
it is built around the com lex syntax NUM NUM lexicon which contains approximately NUM NUM different syntactic head words
a description of the strategies for this phase can be found in
the outline is shown collapsed except for one section sumption that only adjacent segments are compared is not necessarily the case see
we use a statistical subcat induction system which estimates probability distributions and corpus frequencies for pairs of a head and a subcat frame
in this regard we are similar to which also uses a probabilistic method in their hmm based system
from our first annotation trials we found that the recognition of classical speech by coders is fairly reliable while recognizing contextual relationships e.g. whether an utterance accepts a proposal is not as reliable
we use a japanese morphological analyzer and a program package for decision trees c4
within mega automated prover components such as can be called on problems considered as manageable by a machine
discuss extensively this drawback of today s summarizers and conclude that good content representation requires two basic features a presenting the summary extracts in their conte
once a proof is transformed to the assertional level it can be verbalized suitably by the proverb system
in addition to identificational properties also navigational information would be urgently needed for obtaining comprehensible descriptions see
on the contrary i f we consider a more complex situation taken from a wizard of oz simulation in the domain of interior furnishing we will see that our analysis should actually be drawn a step further
the main change from is a greater focus on numerical methods as opposed to parametric and forrnulaic calculations
nevertheless the formulation of passive given in NUM does not address either type of exception under the assumption that these verbs are all of type transitive
it is assumed zripper is similar to cart but it directly produces if then logic rules instead of decision trees and also utilizes incremental error reduction techniques in combination with novel rule optimization strategies
current trends in the development of reusable te tools are best represented by the edinburgh tools ltgt and gate NUM
in this model a document is a list of frames for recording the properties about each token in the text example in fig NUM
i implemented the algorithms for packing and unification in lilfes
cogentex has developed a complementary alternative to presentor exemplars which gives a better programmatic control to the processing of the representations that presentor does
linguistic representations found in the conceptual dictionary are deep syntactic structures dsyntss which are conform to those that realpro pre sentor s sentence realizer takes as input
figure NUM part of a NUM way branching search tree for generating ignoring no alternating skips rule
the system relates those words with those in the document using cooccurrence statistics acquired from a corpus and a dictionary such as
at first sight this restriction might appear to preclude a treatment of rules such as passive which have been assumed to require manipulations of a list valued subcat feature
church among other simple text normalization techniques studied the effect of case normalization for different words and showed that sometimes case variants refer to the same thing hurricane and hurricane sometimes they refer to different things continental and continental and sometimes they do n t refer to much of anything e.g.
this is a difficult case even for sentence boundary disambiguation systerns and which are built for exactly that purpose i.e. to decide whether a capitalized word which follows an abbreviation is attached to it or whether there is a sentence boundary between them
it has been shown in that if q k k NUM q k k then ps k l w ps k w
though theoretical research has been done on unification and attribute value structures operations on syntactic trees have been investigated mainly by comparing different solutions
comparison with shirai s work shirai proposed a framework of statistical language modeling using several corpora the edr corpus rwc corpus and kyoto university corpus
the two other control effects are both also superseded by the current proposal
this is reminiscent of where some part of speech tags have been compounded so that each word is deterministically in one class
none of the systems in muc NUM adopted a learning approach to coreference
the feature component consists of a hierarchy of grammatical objects constrained by relevant features similar to the type hierarchy of head driven phrase structure grammar
there have been several studies how to relate articles
in particular information extraction ie systems like those built in the dai tpa message understanding have revealed that coreference resolution is such a critical component of ie systems that a separate coreference subtask has been defined and evaluated since
at around the same period researchers were starting to put also some emphasis on the teaching strategies adopted in the system such as in west
grishman and use phrasal information in information extraction
the approach that is followed in this paper and that was introduced by is an artificial life approach
this squares with results reported in where learned attributes varied in effectiveness by text type
in our evaluation inquery retrieved and ranked NUM documents for these NUM trec NUM topics
however proposed this correlation may be strengthened by not using the co occurrence counts directly but association strengths between words instead
in contrast lexical functional grammar which assigns representations consisting of a surface constituent tree enriched with a corresponding functional structure is known to be beyond context free
rtt is a reductionistic tagger in the sense of constraint grammars
j irvinen and tapananinen have demonstrated an efficient wide coverage dependency parser for english tapanainen and
phonological alternates are predictable instances of phonological alternation from a base form p with the most widespread types of phonological alternation being sequential voicing NUM NUM and gemination if no method were provided to cluster frequencies for phonological alternates together data sparseness and skewing of the statistical model would inevitably result
this is often referred to as incorporating delerministic
this idea is employed in pollard sketch of an hpsg lexicon as a monotonic multiple orthogonal inheritance type hierarchy
bnc corpus using the shallow parser developed by
these rules correspond to cases of co articulation of phones giachin
armed with these machinery we thus define focus as whatever is in the activated zone az or more precisely whatever is at th e top of the stack in az of the speaker s version of the hearer s dm as a result of immediately recent operations such as retrieval and updating at a given moment in the
we adopt the endorsements based primarily on the source of the information modified to include the strength of the informing agent s belief as conveyed by the surface form of the utterance used to express the belief
the positions det poss and n n mod may be occupied by temporal nps yesterday s appointment of alice smith by ibm appointment by ibm of alice smith
other computational linguistics work on decoding nominalizations includes and
galaxy trains and others
outside the realm of computational linguistics these results have been employed in theorem proving with applications to program and hardware verification
tesni re s hypothesis calls it assumes that each element has exactly one head
thus morphology does not determine the syntactic dependency as ch NUM also argues
our system already made use of a semantic network knowledge representation system known as m pack a kl one derivative which supports multiple inheritance
we appticd these queries to the trec wall street
and others that rebuild trees with a number of tree construction operators which are applied in order according to a stochastic model when parsing a sentence magerman
phonology and prosody were the first areas in which finite state technologies were shown to be linguistically adequate and computationally a close second was cb1998a
conceptual form the basis of the semantic and encyclopedic representations used in our system
we can freely use any subset of rules to obtain a given conclusion and we have no warranty that the set of rules is classically consistent s this s a well known cause of inconsistency is the coexistence in a rule database of monotonic rules like r1 and r2 r1 b can remedied by imposing a non monotonic structure on the inferential relation as
head driven approaches to generation with hpsg are described in detail by
this approach to generation from newinfo has been developed further by
in order to satisfy the first precondition of reevaluate after invite attack core posts mb ca ea tenured lewis and mb ca ea supports tenured lewis on sabbatical lewis NUM as mutual beliefs to be achieved
one user model attribute with such an effect is the user s domain knowledge argues not only influences the amount of information given based on grice s maxim of but also the kind of information provided
logan et al in developing their automated librarian introduced the idea of utilizing a belief to predict whether a given set of evidence is sufficient to change a user s existing belief
this case is not mentioned in grosz joshi
this short paper presents a light version of the tbl system a genera logically transparent flexible and efficient transformation based learner presented
introduction a document comes om somewhere in time and space and leads toward somewhere else
we quote here from the concise description of centering given in walker the centering model is very simple
overall reproducibility and stability for trained annotators does not quite reach the levels found for for instance the best dialogue act coding schemes which typically reach kappa values of around k NUM
yet another possibility for restricting the range of sentences to be annotated is based on the alignment idea introduced in a simple surface measure determines sentences in the document that are maximally similar to sentences in the abstract
it is difficult to overcome this problem because once sentences have been extracted from the source text the context that is needed for their interpretation is not available anymore and can not be used to produce more coherent abstracts
of the NUM NUM productions in the pcfg NUM NUM or just under NUM are subsumed by combinations of two or more 3this tag was introduced to distinguish auxiliary verbs from main verbs
sere NUM encodes various other formulaic expressions indicator in order to exploit explicit rhetoric phrases the authors might have used cf figure NUM right half NUM templates
on the other hand points out the context sensitive dependencies that unification based constraints introduce render the relative frequency estimator suboptimal in general it does not maximize the likelihood and it is inconsistent
these taxonomies were automatically assigned to a wordnet semantic file
this theorem provides a way to determine whether a grammar is consistent
when constructing the justification chain in figure NUM a core predicts that merely informing ea of on sabbatical jones NUM is not sufficient to convince him to accept this belief because of ea s previously conveyed strong belief that dr jones will and the stereotypical belief that being on campus generally implies not being on sabbatical
three models are susceptible to the o n NUM method cf
these two sets of evidence are NUM in our model we associate two measures with an evidential relationship NUM degree which represents the amount of support the antecedent beli provides for the consequent bel and NUM strength which represents an agent s strength of belief in the
in our analysis the cases that fall into this category share a common feature in that the agent explicitly indicates her uncertainty about whether to accept the proposal without suggesting what type of information will help resolve her uncertainty as in the following example express uncertainty a i do n t like violence
it has been implemented and deployed as part of quickset and operates in real time
a number of research groups have developed systems that can automatically design sophisticated presentations to support a task presentations that are both novel and complex
the most extensive effort to date to develop a framework for assessing summaries has been the tipster summac evaluation exercise
the first stage was to re tag our corpus using the brill
have shown that most measures used to evaluate model fit are instances of the power divergence statistic where different measures are generated by changing a single parameter
using a conceptual graph cg of sentences means that a successful acquisition of knowledge corresponds to transforming each sentence from the source text into a set of unambiguous concepts correct word senses found and unambiguous relations correct semantic relations between concepts
unification of disjunctive feature structures
the second system is the transformation based learning system as henceforth tagger r for rules
the algorithm is both greedy and anytime it takes the best result from a single application of a rule to a set of text plans and then attempts to further apply rules to the modified set
another widely used framework in tense e r r s progr representation rr analyses english tenses as follows
the only other empirical study of tense i am aware of was conducted on a manually annotated portuguese english corpus NUM NUM english NUM NUM portuguese word tokens and NUM NUM tense translation pairs
smeaton and have proposed an expansion method using wordnet
we assume here that the base file is encoded according to the recommendations for the morpho syntactic level of chunks adopted in mate which specify a type of syntactic representation that could be produced by existing parsers such parsers might be integrated in the workbench
a maximum entropy tagger is presented
mel as used in the cogentex family of generators
semantic triples relations between word senses mediated usually by an argument position preposition or conjunction
the examples given in this paper are taken from the atis air travel inquiry system domain
view parsing as a deductive process that proves claims about the grammatical status of strings from assumptions derived from the grammar
in this section we adapt results from to the domain of unificationb lsed linguistic formalisms
as a model learning method we adopt the maximum entropy model learning method della
the latter figure matches the best currently published result on within domain all caps data
alethgen takes data from a customer database and produces a customised letter in french
resnik and studied how to find an optimal abstraction level of an argument noun in a tree structured thesaurus
as a different approach to korean collocations extracted interrupted bigrams using several filtering conditions and at least the NUM of the results were adjacent bigrams of length NUM
the main claims of centering theory are also consistent with psycholinguistic
it compares pcfg models induced from treebanks using several different tree repre null department of cognitive and providence ri association for computational linguistics computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM sentations including the representation used in the penn ii treebank corpora marcus and the chomsky adjunction representation now standardly assumed in generative linguistics
we follow moser in assuming that three distinct though interrelated decisions have to be made when generating discourse markers whether to place a marker or not marker occurrence where to place a marker marker placement and finally which marker to use marker selection
in addition the dice and jaccard coefficients are also suitable similarity measures for document comparison
variants of similarity measures such as the above have been used extensively in the ir community
the importance of these factors was stressed by scott and who gave a number of informal heuristics for when and how to signal the presence of coherence relations in text
the syntactic structure of each source sentence is extracted using apple a statistical parser trained on penn treebank data
measures of pitch accent and contour had shown some utility in identifying certain discourse relations
future work will seek to describe not only the magnitude but also the form of these pitch accents and their relation to those outlined in
did not find any pitch measures to be useful in distinguishing speaking mode on the continuum from a rapid conversational style to a carefully read style
first we perform an automatic forced alignment of the utterance to the verbatim transcription text using the ogi cslu cslush
describing the anaphora resolution module of the pundit system improve the focusing mechanism by simplifying its underlying data structures
based on this assumption stored all bigrams of words along with their relative position p NUM p NUM
we here restrict inferables to the particular subset defined by hahn markert which we call functional anaphora fa
html provided by lynette hirschman syntactic structures in the style of the penn treebank provided by ann taylor and an alternative annotation for the f0 aspects of prosody known as and provided by its inventor paul taylor
fhe distinction between smooth shift and rougii shiff w r u proposed
volume NUM number she abandoned the second term NUM
in this section we consider two existing grammars the xtag grammar a wide coverage ltag and the lexsys grammar a wide coverage d tree substitution grammar
in experiments reported elsewhere we have applied srv to collections of electronic seminar announcements and world wide web
both the naive bayes and pebls classifier allow for certain frequency tendencies hidden in the data to bear on the classification
the hypothesis was developed in recent years to address the problem of uniqueness within
briefly mention a pattern matching approach while discuss a hybrid neural net expert system approach to forward transliteration
using numerical linguistic in order to produce supertrised data with which to develop and evaluate our approach a batch of NUM have clauses f om the parsed corpus were manually marked according to stativity
in a wrote one naturally wonders if the problem of translation could conceivably be treated as a problem of cryptography
several parsing algorithms have been proposed for this formalism most of them based on tabular techniques ranging from simple bottom up algorithms to sophisticated extensions of the earley s algorithm
on the level of knowledge sources this is achieved by using a highly declarative hpsg grammar which very closely reflects the latest developments of the underlying linguistic theory and covers phenomena of spoken language
this move is not linguistically unmotivated since the result is equivalent to a form of dependency grammar which have a long linguistic tradition
in particular we use a feature based lexicalized tree adjoining grammar fb ltag see that is derived from an hpsg grammar see section NUM for some more details
simple recurrent are a simple extension of the most popular form of connectionist network multi layered perceptrons mlps
a number of algorithms exist for training such networks with loops in their flow of activation called recurrence for example backpropagation through time
the susanne corpus consists of a subset of the brown corpus preparsed according to the susanne classification scheme described
the tags in the susanne scheme are a detailed extension of the tags used in the lancaster leeds treebank see
for simplicity we adopted the method to tag definition sentences
we have compared four complete and three partial data representation formats for the basenp recognition task presented in
many attempts have also been made to transform the implicit information in dictionary definitions to explicit knowledge bases for computational
the texts were pre processed with the probabilistic pos tagger in order to keep only the lemmatized form of their content words i.e.
showed that there are a number of potentially useful features from various sources within the recognizer which can predict at least to a certain extent the confidence that the recognizer has about a particular hypothesis
from this it was possible to compute agreement and expected agreement by examining the relative frequencies of these tags and thus kappa
following macro level analysis captures two fundamental intentional relations between i units those of domination or parent child and satisfaction precedence or sibling relations
the cohesion between words has been evaluated with the mutual information measure as in
this position was taken by other computational linguists as well p NUM
NUM precondition action rule for example is represented as sbaw p di sbaw act if p is a precondition of action act where sbaw p represents that the inferring agent s believes that agent a wants has noted however these mental attitudes are typically transparent to the reasoning process
the generative lexicon will serve the
we then compare our approach to discourse lochbaum a collaborative planning model processing with previous and show that our approach is aimed at recognizing and reasoning with a different type of intention
looking towards formal discourse syst m q we believe that while it would be possible to integrate the insights of dql into a drt approach such as that t the appr
as reported in we experimented with a trigram model as well as the dependency model for supertag disambiguation
in past work we introduced an alternative formulation for using pos tags in a language model
one can also use pos tags which capture the syntactic role of each word as the basis of the equivalence
johnson has shown that such rewrite rules are equivalent to finite state transducers in the special case that they are not allowed to rewrite their own output
the names of these steps are mostly and even though the transductions involved are not exactly the same
for instance the lenient composition is defined by macro priorityiunion q r lcb q domain q o r rcb
reape uses bitstring codes for a tabular parsing algorithm different from the head corner algorithm used here and attributes the original
for example the case grammar theory is a semantic valence theory that describes the logical form of a sentence in terms of a predicate and a series of case labeled arguments such as agent object location source
ostendorf wightman used hand labeled intonational phrasing to do syntactic disambiguation and achieved performance comparable to that of human listeners
or suri for a discussion of the implications of the prefer sx hypothesis for a pronoun resolution algorithm suri mccoy and decristofaro extending focusing frameworks such as brennan friedman based on centering NUM
and probably to phrase break placement as
just ten years earlier the one million word brown corpus was considered large but these days everyone has access to the web
have suggested a transcription or responsetype task to evaluate comprehensibility
there is only one published work investigating the baseline accuracy much lower than NUM
technically it is done by using the contexted constraints as described in maxwell
in earlier work we demonstrated that contextual representations consisting of both local and topical components are effective for resolving word senses and can be automatically extracted from sample texts leacock
each question was designed to measure a partic4questionnaire based user satisfaction ratings have been frequently used in the literature as an external indicator of agent usability
paradise draws on ideas in multi attribute decision theory to posit the model shown in figure NUM then uses multivariate linear regression to estimate a quantitative performance function based on this model
ct presents a subset of the matching trains using a summary response followed by an option to reduce the information to be retrieved
present the initial success of applying word trigram conditional probabilities to the problem of context based detection and correction of real word errors
describe a back transliteration system for japanese
further afield shows that context unification supports a purely equational treatment of the interaction between ellipsis and quantification whereas presents a very extensive hou based treatment of the interaction between scope and ellipsis
even theories based on phrase structure may have processing models based on relations between lexical items
first it is amenable to the inside outside re estimation algorithm the equations calculating the inside and outside probabilities for pltigs can be
furthermore because it can represent coreferences explicitely it achieves a better account of the interaction between vp ellipsis and anaphora in particular it accounts for the infamous missing reading puzzles of ellipsis
outline an approach where they consider more than NUM features automatically obtained from the machinery of the host natural language processing system the learner is embedded in
our position will be that dependency relations are motivated semantically and need not be projective
used a beam width of NUM NUM parses on the success heap at each input item which must have resulted in an order of magnitude more rule expansions than unary rules with rb
the avoids this complicated book keeping and also rules out some useless subderivations allowed by khnig s method but does so at the cost of computing a representation of all the possible category sequences that might be tested in an exhaustive sequent proof search
the resulting method is one in which the formulae of a lambek sequent that is to be proven are first converted to produce rules of a formalism which combines ideas from the multiset valued linear indexed grammar with the lambek calculus span labeling and with the first order compilation method for categorial
the determination of relatedness via taxonomic relations has a rich for a review
plunging is a way of descending synonymy antonymy and
demonstrated that general terms are contextually instantiated to more specific terms
brennan proposes arguing from corpus analysis that the cb should be pronominalised only if it is cp of the previous utterance
in fact reported an unintended yet interesting result
null the first strategy is clearly appropriate for interpretation but for gene ration the issue is less clear cut
showed that a parser can use automatically extracted intonational phrasing to reduce ambiguity and improve efficiency
NUM for reasons of complexity the complete NUM tuple has not been considered simultaneously except in ratnaparkhi
drss and sdrss will be labeled lcb k1 kn rcb
according to verb synsets are divided into NUM lexicographical files on the basis of semantic criteria
for instance the contrast relation in rst is unusual in having a multinuclear structure rather than the typical nucleus satellite structure
the most notable methods are based on hidden markov models hmm transformation and multi layer neural
theoretical analysis has shown that they have exceptionally good behavior in the presence of irrelevant attributes noise and even a target function changing in
for a more detailed presentation of this framework along with definitions of several more independent parameters
the agents may also collaborate on the strategies used to construct the domain plan such as determining whether to investigate in parallel the different plans for an action or whether to first consider one plan
in section NUM i compare the results of my algorithm with the results of the centering algorithm with and without specifications for complex
analyzed naturallyoccurring dialogues using systemic grammar framework to characterise various aspects of communication such as how attitude is encoded in dialogues how people negotiate with and support for and confront against others and how people establish group membership
though this works technically it seems highly undesirable to have two allomorphs for tod one of which can be predicted but the regular expression tod tot can equally well be written as to d t or even as to continuant sonorant coronal since regular languages can be enriched straightforwardly by bundles of finite valued NUM
some of the associated problems and a proposal to systematically incorporate this mapping are described
more concretely NUM is replaced by NUM the phonological has the form of a regular relation mapping phonological strings into sequences of constraint violation marks NUM and o s which stand for no violation
also notice that the goal is to deduce a tfs which is subsumed by the start symbol and when tfss can be cyclic there can be infinitely many such tfss and hence goals see
for example the constraint might be that the word must appear immediately to the right of the target word see for example the actual collocations would be words that occur there
the data consists of NUM NUM main clauses from the wall street journal treebank corpus NUM there are six classes and the lower bound for the classification problem the frequency in the data set of the most frequent class is NUM
lazy learning with a simple similarity metric based on information entropy ib i ig daelemarts consistently outperforms abstracting greedy learning techniques such as c5 NUM or backprop learning on a broad selection of natural language processing tasks ranging from phonology to semantics
the growth rate as the measure of the productivity of was critically examined
in addition to the well known and it is worth mentioning the
e.g. from the point of view of the preceding stem humid morpheme combinations NUM similar to the two level descriptions
introduction the establishment of the antecedents of anaphora is of crucial importance for a correct translation
as solving the anaphora and extracting the antecedent are key issues in a correct translation
present extensions of the centering model for spoken dialogue and identify several problems with the model
we compared the german example of scalar motion verbs to the linguistic classification of verbs and found an agreement of our classification with the class of einfache anderungsverben simple verbs of change except for the verbs anwachsen increase and stagnieren stagnate which were not classified there at all
we assume the general theoretical where discourse is formally characterized as a game of intentional inquiry
select cartographic generalization operators are applied to address key multi scale and information
the idas project of served as a key motivation for this work
we take the stand that a complete natural language instruction generation system for a device should have at the top level knowledge of the device as suggested by
instead of using a qualitative or quantitative simulation system such as the device modelling environment we have used device actions to discretely model the continuous processes for simplicity
paraphrasing is defined as alternative ways a human speaker can choose to say the same thing by using linguistic knowledge as opposed to world knowledge
the aim of statistical or probabilistic is to assign the most likely sequence of tags given the observed sequence of words
it is anticipated that most of the errors that learners make will be within the constructions where construction is construed broadly that they are in the process of and that they will favor sentences involving those constructions in a hypothesize and test style of learning as predicted by interlanguage theory
maximum likelihood ml estimates of these probabilities can be obtained by formulating the estimation problem as a ml estimation from incomplete data where the unknown data is the underlying segmentation s let q k k NUM be the following auxiliary function computed with the likelihoods of iterations k and k NUM
we applied the combined lexicon to plandoc a practical generation system for telephone network plaunlng
detection of self corrections on transcriptions before parsing has been explored but it is not clear that it will be feasible on whgs since recognition errors interfere and the search space may explode due to the number of paths
is a large scale research project in the area of spoken language translation
the vit short for verbmobil interface term was designed as a common output format for the two alternative and independently developed syntactic semantic analysis components of the first project phase
mori et al show that properties of japanese conditionals can be used to resolve them
recent developments in constraint based fornmlations of may introduce new methods of representation to sfg sudl as feature or structure sharing cf
cf NUM can thus only combine with the determiner das definite determiner but not with ein indefinite determiner
current approaches to surface realization are mostly in depth based on general linguistically motivated and widely reusable realization components such as penman kpml and surge
grammar rules leading to preferred formulations are selected first from a conflict set of concurring rules the preference mechanisms will be used in a future version to tailor the texts for administrative and public uses
the practical effect of this is that troll implements an exhaustive typing strategy which provides the stronger kind of inferencing over descriptions required by standard hpsg theories
the approach described in this paper is directly inspired by calder however there are major differences between the two approaches
we are currently experimenting with a c based using an abstract machine with a specialized set of instructions based on the
special mechanisms are included to allow the grammar writer to specify how the universal constraints and definite clauses are intended to interleave in processing
for more details including a precise statement of the compilation procedure
among the attempts to enrich lexical information many have been directed to the analysis of dictionary definitions and the transformation of the implicit information to explicit knowledge bases for computational
the framework adopted for coordination between utterances and actions is synchronization by reference
it would therefore be a good idea if we can unify our lexical semantic knowledge by some existing and widely exploited classifications such as the system in roget s thesaurus roget NUM which has remained intact for years and has been used in
a generative system based on the work of hobbs et al is described in
this process forms a small but densely populated bubble of attention around the activated node
oflazer use simple statistical information and constraint rules
analyses carried out in chomskian frameworks view noun phrases as dps headed by the functional category d the dp hypothesis dph has been applied to a variety of languages and is incorporated into most existing accounts for modem hebrew
we now show that this model satisfies the requirements set out by grosz theory of discourse structure
abney presents a finite state parsing approach in which a tagged sentence is parsed by transducers which progressively transform the input to sequences of symbols representing phrasal constituents
the work of on link grammar an essentially lexicalized variant of dependency grammar has also proved to be interesting in a number of aspects
due to space limit we only discuss a few major points here for an elaborate account of the algorithm ret assigned focus hood
3the example used here is
for each utterance of a discourse an agent must determine whether the utterance begins a new segment of the discourse completes the current segment or contributes to it
p klj p olk following we implement p w in a weighted finite state acceptor wfsa and we implement the other distributions in weighted finite state transducers wfsts
we then applied the estimation maximization em dempster to generate symbol mapping probabilities shown in figure NUM our em training goes like this NUM
hindle and both separate the task of correcting a repair from detecting it by assuming that there is an acoustic editing signal that marks the interruption point of speech repairs as well as access to the pos tags and utterance boundaries
when provided with enough labeled training examples a variety of text classification algorithms can learn reasonably accurate
in p NUM for example there are anaphoric relations semantic relations without correspondent syntactic relations
typically word sense disambiguation wsd occurs during the parsing of definitions and example sentences following the construction of logical forms
for example paradigmatic relations in wordnet have been used by many to determine similarity including and
a more complete description of hierarchical shrinkage for text classification is presented by
an earlier version of the definitions can be found in our annotation guidelines
for more details we refer the reader to
this is useful from a practical functional perspective because it limits both the conceptual and linguistic diversity which needs to be processed so far this approach has produced the best results in computational linguistic applications
in us academia the american council on the teaching of foreign languages actfl has promulgated the through professional development workshops and tester training
dql was designed to han null dle phenomena such as plurals and complex relations between discourse referents often left unaddressed by other formal semantic frameworks a b
abney proposes a gradient ascent based upon a monte carlo procedure for estimating e0 fj
strube in very handles arbitrary sentence complexity
linson analyzed a corpus of spoken data to investigate focus transition patterns
assuming a set of similar sentences as input extracted from multiple documents on the same event our system identifies common phrases across sentences and uses language generation to reformulate them as a coherent summary
have convincingly argued that users of formal verification languages make use of recurring specification patterns
in the approach to multimodal integration proposed integration of spoken and gestural input is driven by a unification operation over typed representing the semantic contributions of the different modes
hart c4 and metalearning to combine learning methods
in particular certain lexico syntactic features of a clause such as temporal adjuncts and tense are constrained by and contribute to the aspectual class of the
lauer has compared two diffbrent models of corpus based approaches fbr nominal compound analysis
we have recently adapted the approach for arabic as well
unlike it is fully multimodal in that all elements of the content of a command can be in either mode
it is straightforward to extend the approach to allow for non binary rules using techniques from active but this step is of limited value given the availability of multimodal subcategorization section NUM
to rigorously assess the potential gains to be had from these attentional features we consider them in combination with lexical and syntactic features identified in the literature as strong predictors of
usually it is achieved by step wise refinements based on syntactic semantic and pragmatic constraints while traversing a semantic
the local attentional status of basenps is represented by two features commonly used in centering theory to compute the cb and the cf list gram matical function and form of expression
initial word based experiments on our corpus showed that broad class categories performed slightly better than both the function content distinction and the pos tags themselves giving NUM NUM correct word
the accenting of a referring expression serves as an inference cue to shift attention to a new backward looking center cb or to mark the global re introduction of a referent lack of ac cent serves as an inference cue to maintain attentional focus on the cb cf list members or global
both with and without lexical templates on the r m corpus throughout the table we see the effects of base np complexity the base nps of the r m corpus are substantially more difficult for our approach to identify than the simpler nps of the empire corpus
a rule based machine learning program is used to acquire accent classification systems from a training corpus of correctly classified examples each defined by a vector of feature values or predictors
computational linguistics volume NUM context sensitive models are formulated
have proposed an alternate slot error metric
we have in mind constructions of the kind studied by
the primary goal of the language game is communal inquiry i.e. interlocutors attempting to share information about their world with the repository of that shared information characterized as the interlocutors common groun cg
an exhaustive list of variation patterns is provided for the english language
byrne et al describe a conversational english data collection protocol with native speakers of spanish as its targets
we chose this strategy since there is good evidence that nouns are best disambiguated by broad contextual considerations while other parts of speech are resolved by more local factors
and proposed english chinese transliteration methods relying on the property of the chinese phonetic system which can not be directly applied to transliteration between english and japanese
sensus is a largescale ontology designed for machine translation and was produced by merging the ontological hierarchies of wordnet and ldoce
these have both been adopted from immediate precursors within the project such as and further refined
we are not concerned with lexical acquisition from very large corpora using surface level collocational data as proposed by and or with hyponym extraction based on entirely syntactic criteria or lexico semantic associations or sekine et al
our approach bears a close relationship however to the who all aim at the automated learning of word meanings from context using a knowledge intensive approach
the terms used in the table are the following anterior left bunsetsu of the dependency posterior right bunsetsu of the dependency head the rightmost word in a bunsetsu other than those whose major part of speech NUM category is special marks NUM postpositional particles or suffix 2part of speech categories follow those of ju man
the averaging method was developed many years ago and is well accepted by the information retrieval community
one could take a greedy approach such as the well known inside outside re estimation which induces locally optimal grammars by iteratively improving the parameters of the grammar so that the entropy of the training data is minimized
this idea goes and is motivated by larger situation definite descriptions such as the pope and by some cases of unexplanatory modifier use such as thefirst person to sail to america
indeed if we compare the adjusted measure we obtained with a set of about NUM rules NUM precision with the average 41deg precision we obtain an advantage of NUM points which for a task suchas wsd is noteworthy
for defines the thematic hierarchy as agent experiencer goal location source
our findings also suggest that the classification process may rely on more than just lexical cues as fraurud seems to assume taking up a suggestion see below
by exploiting an error driven rule the system is able to produce rules for wsd which can be optionally edited by humans in order to increase the performance of the system
as we need three principles semantic head inheritance principle ship quantifier inheritance principle quip and contextual head inheritance principle chip
there are similarities between boosting and transformation based both build classifiers by combining simple rules and both are noted for their resistance to overfitting
we show that using essentially the same item based descriptions we have used for parsing we can specify grammar transformations
graham harrison describe a parser similar to earley s but with several speedups that lead to significant improvements
adaboost was first introduced by the version described here is a slightly simplified version of the one given by
teitelbaum showed that any semiring could be used in the cky algorithm laying the foundation for much of the work that followed
a lexicon was produced from the training corpus
while the autolexical model may not now be correct for applications in which speed is of primary concern it has only begun to be implemented computationally and any serious attempt at inferencing from natural language input will have to produce similar graded
al x ak if ai b if ai e b NUM the proof parallels that of
we use both and hidden markov models hmm to build pitch accent models
treebank texts contain complete structural parsers pos tags and annotation of the antecedents of definite pronouns added
when a coherence relation ties two adjacent portions of text together it is often lexically signalled on the linguistic surface with a suitable word most often a conjunction but also a preposition a prepositional phrase or an adverb
the three lexic d resources revision of roger s thesaurus roget the longman dictionary of contemporary english ldoce and the prolog version of wordnet NUM NUM wn
various ways of implementing such a scheme can be imagined one is the blackboard based approach suggested by wanner another is the hunter gatherer search paradigm introduced
the traditional ssplit of nlg systems in a content determination what to say component and a realization how to say component was in recent years supplemented by an intermediate stage sentence planning sometimes called micro planning e.g. rambow
for more detail see
in this section we shortly review a translation approach based on the so called monotonicity requirement
methods that solely use observations of patterns in vocabulary use include vocabulary and the blocks algorithm im plemented in the texttiling
this alignment representation is a generalization of the baseline alignments described in and allows for many to many alignments
dowty calls an incremental theme any argument i yet motion verbs could be attributed an affected argument i.e. their agents so thatjackendoff s point against affectedness does not seem to be decisive
jackendoff observed that implicit paths such as on the deck in NUM are not affected arguments so that the telicity of such motion events can not be explained using affectedness ruling out a unified affectedness based account of telicityl it follows from this objection that the standard theory should be at least amended
the problem of finding suitable identifying properties will not be addressed here although as will be shown our approach could incorporate this work
however our method is not equivalent to the standard approach in vector based information retrieval which simply uses the rows or columns of the term document matrix for definitions of the standard case
in this paper we use only noun taxonomy with hyponymy hypernymy or is a relations which relates more general and more specific
the similarity between two words is then defined as the dice coefficient of the two feature
we used smart version to obtain the initial query weight using the formula ltc as be
proposed the use of wordnet in information retrieval they did not use wordnet in the query expansion framework
we derived the distributional vectors of all NUM unique words present in the NUM million words of wall street journal text taken from the
gaifman establishes that a dependency grammar obtained in this way is equivalent to a phrase structure grammar in the i sense that they have the same terminal alphabet for every string over that alphabet i structure attributed by either every grammar corresponds to a structure attributed by the other
rule based they may or may not take word order into defined by robinson s axioms does have aspects consideration but they all observe robinson s that can not be modelled elegantly by psg
to rules in fig NUM as shown in fig NUM a lexical entry has two subcategorization lists one for complements on its left and one for complements on its right an inspiration from
though dg can be usefully emulated by a constrained cfg model the formalism as least as na ten zai gongyuan li that person in park inside fig NUM the main or central element terminology of the sentence is zal its immediate dependants are ten and i which in turn have dependants of their own
this information deficiency is partially overcome by the application of a regular filter which heuristically reconstructs constituent structure
therefore we conceived microplanning as a constraint satisfaction representing undirected relations between variables
hopcroft theorem NUM NUM
in the past such a backward algorithm has been used with rule based parsers e.g.
the parser proposed by is considered to be one of the most accurate parsers in english
give an example of muc NUM coreference annotation applied to an existing trains dialog annotation marking speaker turns and overlap
similarly wishful includes an optimization phase during which it chooses the optimal way to achieve a set of related communicative goals
rules are defined in terms of tree specifications and operators and are stylistically similar to the kinds of rules proposed in
this type of voting rule was first
each relation was paired with an informal definition given in the style of and and one or more examples
this type of dsp addresses several problems with the above examples problems that motivated grosz subsequent work on sharedplans namely the case of one agent intending another to do something and the so called master slave assumption
intentions such as these as well as segment beginnings and endings might be recognized on the basis of linguistic markers utterance level intentions or knowledge about actions and objects in the domain of discourse
we reserve tlhe term mental phenomenon approach for those approaches such as sharedplans lochbaum a collaborative planning model and pollack s that take mental states to be primary
also the evaluation of and only focused on specific types of noun phrases organizations and business entities and dealt only with japanese texts
since the accuracy of coreference resolution relies on the correct identification of the candidate noun phrases both and only evaluated their systems on noun phrases that have been correctly identified
NUM english verb classes and alternations evca
however the features they used include domain specific ones like dnp f definite np whose referent is a facility jv child i does i refer to a joint venture formed as the result of a tie up etc
training data for this pass is obtained using a head percolation on bracketed penn treebank sentences
srinivas has presented a different approach called supertagging that integrates linguistically motivated lexical descriptions with the robustness of statistical techniques
it is related to work by where mutual information is used to cluster words into classes for language modeling
this functionality has been used in van to provide an implementation of the algorithm in
13a similar preference would be made by other approaches such as tempora centering kameyama pussons
a second advantage for robust finite state parsing is that bracketing could also include the notion of repair
our prior evaluations have focused on end to end translation accuracy at the utterance level i.e. fraction of utterances translated perfectly acceptably and unacceptably
their multimodal subcategorization is specified in a list valued subcat feature implemented using a recursive first rest NUM
a great amount of work has been done on generating various types of referring expressions which addresses the referring part while little has addressed the generation issues with respect to the other part except that in scott the relation between embedding and rhetorical relations is discussed and several heuristics for combining sentences using embedding are given
although a formal model of referring built within the framework of a general theory of speech acts and rationality is given in and this can be used to explain how referring acts achieve multiple goals there is a gap between the general model and the planning of the linguistic content of a referring expression
this process can be naturally described as abduction or inference to the best explanation
a revised version of text structure ts is used as an intermediate level of representation between the text planner and the sentence realiser which provides syntactic constraints to the text planner while abstracting away from linguistic details
null as mentioned the system will support two grammar fbrmalisms corresponding to the two tagset mappings just mentioned pure context free grammar and a feature structure formalism the latter in the style
the basic idea is that the system should be a pedagogically organised toolbox for grammar formulation and corpus inspection taking the one step further and this idea makes it natural to integrate various extensions into the system such as new inspection tools and other grammar formalisms and parsers e.g. or finite state formalisms for syntax e.g.
this is mainly for practical reasons our student population being too small for this kind of experiment NUM instead we will use in class observa2there are also theoretical motivations for this as there have been serious concerns voiced in the literature about the meaningfulness of such experiments in the context of computer assisted
point out that turning written coursebooks directly into hypertext rarely yields good results on the basis of practical experiences of medical information systems we are warned that paper based information often loses in lu idity and navigability as a result of it being poured into a computer
such an interface can also be given a more direct pedagogical motivation there are call applications where students step into tile role of the teacher as it were designing exercises as if for their fellow students and learning about the subject matter in doing
in several grosz some grammatical roles e.g. surface subject and surface direct object are considered indicative of what is in focus
walker also performed a corpus analysis on spoken english to investigate how centering should process a sentence beginning with the word now which she assumes frequently marks a new
furthermore some definitions of focus overlap with while others do not
the context of a phone is considered only as 1transcriptions were made by a combination of hand transcriptions using multiple parametric representations of sentences as a guide and automatic alignment
we analyze subcategorization frequencies from four different corpora psychological sentence production data written text brown and wsj and telephone conversation data switchboard
the algorithm achieved a success rate of NUM NUM which translates into a discourse marker error rate of NUM NUM in comparison to the rate of NUM NUM for
to estimate the probability distributions we follow the approach of and use a decision tree learning algorithm to partition the context into equivalence classes
instead we adapt a technique and use bitstring codes to represent the portions of the input covered by each element in an order domain
in this section we first discuss two studies in which the information structure of utterances is already integrated into the
dale also the generation of pronouns in the context of work on generating referring
computational linguists have recognized the need to account for referential ambiguities in discourse and have developed various theories centered around the notion of
while some researchers address this problem by selecting a subset of the repetitions this approach is not always satisfactory
inspired by the goal of the interaction phase is to minimize collaborative effort between the system and the speaker while maintaining a high level of interpretation accuracy
robert dale s rpicure system employs the terminology of ct in condeg nection with re generation as does the ilex system reported in
a plan based discourse processor provides contextual expectations that guide the system in the manner in which it formulates sentence what about any time but the ten to twelve slot on tuesday the thirtieth
that neuro models require few parameters may offer another advantage their performance is less affected by a small amount of training data than that of the statistical
the correct rate of tagging of these models has reached NUM in part by using a very large amount of training data e.g. NUM NUM NUM
because there are NUM types of poss in thai n in NUM NUM and NUM was set at NUM
we define infox just as
the main ingredients are defaults describing laws that encode the knowledge we have about the discourse relation and discourse processing NUM the following discourse which is similar to example NUM exemplifies how sdrt deals with anaphora resolution within a sequence of NUM kl after thirty months america is back in space
the same is true for the implementation although a proposal is given there for a method that might improve the situation
cite a number of instances in which it appears that multiple simple constraints must be combined via disjunction there called conjunction into complex constraints
at the sentential level types of syntactic errors such as co occurrence violations ellipsis conjunction errors and extraneous terms have been studied young eastman
in this paper we show how machine learning techniques for constructing and combining several classifiers can be applied to improve the accuracy of an existing english pos tagger
the s list ranking criteria define a preference for hearer old over hearer new discourse generalizing strube approach
henceforth bfp algorithm extend the notion of centering transition relations which hold across adjacent utterances to differentiate types of shift cf
probabilities based on relative frequencies or derived fl om the measure defined for example allow to take this fact into account
to overcome the problems delineated above we follow in considering the grammar transformation operator itself rather than its fixpoint as the denota null g is ffgffa i ta
as a comparison obtained a precision of NUM for the first hundred associations between english and french noun phrases using the em algorithm
in this last case we can envisage several ways to extend the notion of translation unit in translation memory systems as the one proposed in lang
a multi rooted structure mrs r is a sequence of tfss with possible reentrancies among diffi rent elements in the sequence
experiments reveal that viewing dynamic diagrams perhaps with an accompanying discussion by one or more people enhances performance significantly on tasks such as syntactic category labeling and tree construction
only those roots which lead to an inflected form identical to the original word form are
in essence morphy is a computer implementation of the morphological system described in the duden
although we considered a number of algorithms we decided to use the trigram algorithm for tagging
in the collocations and their associated scores were evaluated indirectly by their use in parse tree selection
aist et al discuss considerations in collecting speech from children pointing out that children may be uncooperative and easily bored and may have difficulty reading
the few studies that have focussed on spoken corrections of computer misrecognitions and also found significant effects of duration and in oviatt et al pause insertion and length null ening played a role
thus we observe a parallel between the changes in duration and pause from original to repeat correction described as conversational to clear in and from casual conversation to carefully read speech in
review several of these and introduce a rule based approach with NUM NUM rules for english which achieved NUM NUM accuracy on one corpus and NUM NUM on another
most of the related work reported above had found relationships between the magnitude of pitch features and discourse function rather than presence of accent type used more heavily by
for the testing ten densely printed pages including ligatures were scanned using lip scan jet ilcx scanner at NUM dpi resolution from a good quality book type set in naskhi together with two pages of degraded text taken from a magazine printed on a highly reflective and smooth
null in contrast nearest neighbors averaging NUM does not explicitly cluster words
we are interested in two formal properties of the annotation scheme stability and
this generalizes the ibr classifiers based on unweighted overlap metrics to classifiers based oll a weighted overlap metric
in a genetic algorithm is used for finding informative attribute subsets in a neural network setting
propose boolean operators like conjunction and negation for forming new attributes in a decision tree setting
this ambiguity presents a di culty for automatically classifying a verb because the aspectual class of a clause is a function of several clausal constituents in addition to the main
the documents consisted of ap wall street journal and financial times news articles from the trec collection
it specifies a set of discourse representation structures drss
some models use weighted conditions which differentially impact on the quality of the representation
the vit can be viewed as a theory independent representation for underspecified semantic representations
agreement relations are encoded into tgl by virtue ofa patr style feature percolation mechanism
the structure mapping presents analogy as mapping between two distinct systems
for describes a probabilistic approach to entity level merging that outperforms several baseline metrics
we base our consideration of textual coherence on the definitions introduced
over the last decades entropy has frequently been used to segment corpora among many others
after each step the annotations were compared using the statistic as reliability measure for all classification
the system may be planbased attempting to identify and understand the ramifications of the problem the user wants to solve
such self organizing behavior as opposed to simpler state transitions generally has one of a number of possible motivations
define a modified semantics principle to cater for this but the effect of retrieval on qstore and quants means that the mother and the semantic head daughter must have different logical forms
this group includes existential generic and corporate 3rd person plural
in assuming that the predicate of a discourse deictic anaphor determines the type of abstract object
the statistical machine translation method described in makes use of bilingual word classes
proceedings of eacl NUM criterion lp1 lpx c n h n c c c c NUM zh n c NUM c argm n lpi c n
hutchens apply a threshold of NUM NUM log2 NUM to select among all maxima those that represent boundaries
the most important one is an lfg parser developed in the language and cognition group at the limsi however as the rules can not yet cover a significant proportion of complex sentences our system uses only local analysis which parses nps even when the sentence analysis fails
graphs produced by the hamburg speech recognition system
recently many works combined a mrd and a corpus for word sense
in the similarity based rather than a class each word is modeled by its own set of similar words derived from statistical data extracted from corpora
firstly it can be used in combination with some system of labeling after the labeled deduction methodology as a general method for formulating various categorial grammar systems
note however that do not identify the head of subjects subjects in embedded clauses or subjects and objects related to the verb only through a trace which makes their task easier
the muccs is the most widely used of the existing coreference schemes and also the more modest in scope it concentrates on identity relations between nps
in recent work have shown that for typical natural language processing tasks this approach is at an advantage because it also remembers exceptional low frequency cases which are useful to extrapolate from
null the link grammar parser takes a sentence as input and returns a complete parse in which terms are connected in typed binary relations links which represent syntactic relationships
our object in using is to enable 5rv to recognize that the phrases a bought b and x acquired y are instantiations of the same underlying pattern
for convenient comparisons of only one value we also list the fz i value z2 l prec rec NUM prec rec with NUM
shows that basenp recognition fz i NUM NUM is easier than finding both np and vp chunks fz NUM NUM NUM
l have introduced a convenient data representation for chunking by converting it to a tagging task
in these models actions are represented using operators derived from strips
although there was a lot of work on dr acquisition such as bl etc it is still desirable to develop general powerful and easy to use methods and tools for this
the euro although continuing in the wordnet tradition includes a focus on semi automated procedures for acquiring lexical content
a widely held view expressed in is that if there were one word to describe why natural language processing is hard it is ambiguity
we will also use a variant of this operation in our formalization of lexical rules in section gives an elegant definition of asymmetric default unification of untyped feature structures in terms of maximal incorporation of information
troll is a phrase structure backbone system very similar to ale but it differs from that system in that it is based on the set theoretic logic rather than the information theoretic one
NUM also proposed a revision of hawkins theory that merges some of the classes on semantic grounds
since the advent of manually tagged corpora such as the brown corpus and the penn the efficacy of machine learning for training a tagger has been demonstrated using a wide array of techniques including markov models decision trees connectionist machines transformations nearest neighbor algorithms and maximum entropy
our subjective category is related to but differs from the statement opinion category of the switchboard damsl discourse annotation project as well as the gives opinion category model of small group interaction
otherwise the sentence is subjective NUM we focus on sentences about private states such as belief knowledge emotions etc and sentences about speech events such as speaking and writing
while their kappa results are very good for other tags the opinion statement tagging was not very successful the distinction was very hard to make by labelers and accounted for a large proportion of our interlabeler error
sw2403 this group also contains the various subcategorised expletives defined as being non referring pronouns in argument positions e.g. proceedings of eacl NUM NUM uh they do n t need somebody else coming in and saying you know okay we re going to be with them and we re going to zap it to you
have attempted to obtain selectional preferences using the expectation maximization algorithm by encoding wordnet as a hidden markov model and using a modified form of the forward backward algorithm to estimate the parameters
we use the log likelihood x statistic rather than the pearson s x NUM statistic as this is thought to be more appropriate when the counts in the contingency table are
furthermore ltigs can be parameterized to form probabilistic models
the mrs produced by the reference resolution module response are compared to the correct solution key using an implementation of the algorithm described by used also in the muc evaluations
applying this principle generation in effendi is realized by synchronizing a set of actively communicating independent processes so called objects each of which is responsible for the syntactic realization of an input element and its integration into the syntactic structure of the whole utterance
NUM is telic and non atomic because the chicken goes through successive states of cookedness i.e. result states before reaching a final state and not because of some event object mapping function in the
fortunately the first two models of deal with english only so we can reuse them directly for arabic english transliteration
extending this notion built five probability distributions NUM p w generates written english word sequences
hearst introduced the idea of learning hypernym hyponym relationships from text and gives several examples of patterns that can be used to detect these relationships including those used here along with an algorithm for identifying new patterns
virbel and have done extensive work on the visual aspects of text organization as one realisation of what will be called formatting though as will be seen it is formatting in a somewhat broader sense than the usual acception
this complexity has been the focus of much research recently with a number of authors appealing to halliday s tripartite distinction of linguistic metafunctions ideational interpersonal and textual in order to articulate different perspectives on discourse organization or different levels of description
cgus will require at least some initiating material by one conversational participant the initiator presenting the new content as well as generally some feedback or acknowledgment by the other participant
our final model of the grammar of definitions in this corpus presented fully in is the result of several cycles of approximation refinements it presents a number of basic patterns which are one level of abstraction removed from the surface forms they allow the grouping together of surface forms in terms of an analysis in harrisian elementary phrases and transformations
NUM whether this is a useful perspective for machine translation is debatable however it is a dead on description of transliteration
the unifier which was part of the original hpsg grammar development system mentioned in the introduction described by provided a number of advanced features including distributed or named disjunctions and support for full backtracking
in the system implemented here we used on the stack states to restrict attention to a finite number of distinct stack states for any given stack depth
for example the implementation described here translates a dcg version of the example grammar given by directly into a fsm without constructing an approximating cfg
after the dialogue model has been updated the culf is sent to the back end application e.g. to query or update its database and the system may generate utterances as need l the algorith presented here have been hnplemented in common lisp using the loom knowledge representation to maintain the common ground and background knowledge of the hotel application domain
the value s is the semantic similarity between a possible antecedent and noun x of noun x no noun y semantic similarity is shown by level in bunrui goi
the third line defines the sequence which we want bracketed and the last 2the rule types we have chosen are similar to those used by in transformation based parsing but are more powerful
the local level refers to the influence of a listener s memory for the linguistic form of an utterance the actual words and the syntactic structure on his interpretation of a subsequent NUM according to this theory of discourse structure pronominal reference depends on the local level of attentional state not the global level
a more satisfactory explanation of such pronoun uses has two components specification of the information that indicates a shift in focus back to the attentional state of some previous discourse segment typically more than an unstressed pronoun alone and a determination of first provided algorithms that tied the local level with pronominal reference
there have been many studies of domain identification which used term weighting j
the prominent retains the notion of sharply limited capacity in working memory but the component subsystems that have these limitations the articulatory loop and the visual spatial sketchpad represent information at levels that are not directly useful in discourse processing of the sort with which walker is concerned
many different cues have been discussed in the literature including cue phrases intonation repetition of
these path patterns were then used in a testing phase to determine the substitutional similarity or dissimilarity of unseen word pairs algorithms
for ch NUM NUM meaning fr
make this same point and arrive at the same estimator albeit through a maximum entropy argument
uses these co referenc e classes to define a precision and recall metric which yields intuitively plausible results and is easy to calculate
for the dependency model we used the method
for an overview of this approach see karttunen
for example merged wordnet and ldoce using information in the hierarchies and textual definitions of each resource
coreferential relations are coded by two labelers using dtt discourse tagging tool
other relatively large and concept based resources such as penman ontology usually include only hyponymy relations compared to the rich types of lexical relations presented in wordnet
in methods based on unique lexical forms allowing diacritics paradigms are represented by a single base form NUM our approach is close to the minimal listing methods but less rules are needed
this paper presents a pronoun resolution algorithm that adheres to the constraints and rules of centering theory and is an alternative to algorithm
the method is similar to the one of goldberg k used in the bug system the description is theoretically infinite hut there is a finite performance limit when running
such an approach has the potential to considerably improve upon the performance of a classical planner
we have conducted a series of lexical acquisition experiments with the above algorithm on large scale english corpora e.g. the brown corpus and the ptb wsj corpus
kit defines the description length of a corpus x xlx2 xn a sequence of linguistic tokens e.g. characters words pos tags as the shannon fano code length for the
another tendency that is very noticeably parallel to that of nlp is the development of sophisticated language resources such as dictionaries for language lexical learning as exemplified by celine at grenoble and the reader which uses wordnet or real corpuses as in the european project camille
most research on single document summarization particularly for domain independent tasks uses sentence extraction to produce a summary
for example in evaluating her reports that s ometimes however the explanations were too long especially when students accumulated errors
unlike the current mainstream in automatic linguistic knowledge acquisition which can be characterized as quantitative surface oriented bulk processing of large corpora of we propose here a knowledge intensive model of concept learning from few positive only examples that is tightly integrated with the non learning mode of text understanding
recently presented a word based model for speech recognition that models simple word deletion and repetition patterns
harabagiih that cohesion as a surface indicator of the text coherence can indicate the lexico semantic knowledge upon which coherence is inferred
two common approaches for doing this are interpolated estimation and the
NUM atomicity as a semantic issue many authors have denied atomicity any semantic content and have argued that it is a pragmatic category
dowty rejects ostensibly the possibility to treat as incremental themes the patient arguments of so called punctual i.e. achievement verbs such as slam open
formal means to calculate it within an nlp system have been discussed for a computational implementation of related interest in a similar spirit
in addition the syntactic label is asserted which characterizes the grammatical construction figuring as the structural source for that particular hy1such a part of speech hypothesis can be derived from the inventory of valence and word order specifications underlying the dependency grammar model we use
following localcontext and lexical rules were induced
the list is expanded from tiaruno s list
the suc tagging scheme is presented in
these relations are determined using techniques described in
attributes values are parts of speech which are assigned using a windowing approach with a window size of NUM inl pos is a part of speech tagging task for dutch using tl e dutch tale tagset van der voort van der attribute values are parts of speech
propose correlation arcs between attributes augmenting naive bayes with a graph structure
prove that the training error of the final hypothesis is at most yitr l zt
dql combines generalized uantifier theory gqt and plural with dynamic semantics
we specifications for dealing with complex sentences for a description see section NUM
ramshaw and marcus used transformation based learning tbl for developing two chunkers
provides an excellent discussion of these cases including a discussion of sparse matrix inversion useful for speeding up some computations
high ambiguity entangled nodes and asymmetry have already been emphasized in as being an obstacle to the effective use of on line thesaura in corpus linguistics
indeed in a situation where a gesture would be ambiguous and point to the overall scene a set of geometrical shapes a specific i in particular gricean maxims as well as relevance theory would tend towards an analysis which compare the different referring expressions in terms of cognitive cost
two elements form the theoretical background of this work the grammar used in fuf surge and pierrehumbert s intonation
therefore word co occurrence information can be used to identify semantic relationships between words
demonstratives plurals and that it can be extended to cover a more complex treatment of focus such as centering theory
the rules are then composed into one finite state transducer
postgraphe takes tabular data of the sort found in a typical spreadsheet and generates a report integrating both graphics and text
bnn performs multistream audio video text analysis to eliminate commercials segment stories extract named entities i.e. people organization location and keyframes and classify and summarize stories merlino
geonode is based on the research area of geographic visualization which investigates methods and tools that impact the way scientists and others conceptualize and explore georeferenced data make decisions critical to society and learn about the world
the need for dynamic planning such as used in ppp should be examined
to do this we first briefly illustrate our claim that the grammar development environments and approaches that are adopted in natural language generation are by and large disjoint to those developed in natural language provides a useful overview of current language engineering projects where multilinguality plays a role
applying the criteria we show that in hebrew it is the noun that heads the noun phrases
this value is normalized by the maximal mutual information with regard to the corpus which is given by max log2 n2 sw NUM with n corpus size and sw window size NUM thematic segmentation without lexical network the first method based on a numerical analysis of the vocabulary distribution in the text is derived from the method
further more interaction between the users and the mt system should be allowed for difficult
over the last decade and others NUM have contributed to this issue see the systems and idas
for some time there was a debate about various optimization criteria for comparing the suitability of alternative sets of descriptors but we feel this issue is settled now in favor of the incremental algorithm interpretation preferred descriptors are sequentially included in the referring expression to be produced provided each descriptor leads to the exclusion of at least one potential distractor
first introduced it for hidden markov models regular grammars extended it to the problem addressed here estimation for context free grammars
the next sentence typically states the specific goal or contribution of the paper often in a formulaic
as the poor reliability scores which have been obtained by for this kind of scheme indicate once one moves beyond the ident relation it can be difficult to decide how to classify the link between two elements
the subset was the neighboring alignments of the viterbi alignments discovered by model NUM and model NUM we chose to include the model NUM viterbi alignment here because the model NUM alignment is closer to the ideal when strong skewness exists in a sentence pair
the corpus which was used to train the tagger on hungarian consisted of only one text a fiction with inventive language while brill used a training corpus consisting of several types of
recently recognizing the amount of time and effort involved in creating and annotating corpora this need has gained the attention of north american researchers and funders as well see in particular the conclusions of an nsfsponsored international workshop on the future directions of nlp research
proper names are the main concern of the named entity recognition of information extraction
the tag formalism is well known for the existence of efficient syntactic generation algorithms
the early arguments put forward against the dependency only approach in the areas of linear sequencing e.g. features and categorization of higher nodes and headless constructions could be largely dismissed
teich in press the grammatical types in si g however are functionally rather than surface syntactically motivated
in this section we take examples from various linguistic literature van oir and show how the algorithm developed in section NUM generates them
most clearly however a concept of head received a special status in x bar which has become the phrase structure model underlying man current grammar aproaches
the concepts of head and dependency had actually been taken up already in early transformational grammar e.g. and incorporated in the deep structure representation
claws4 supplied by the university of lancaster h3 is calculated in two different ways
both the representation and the algorithm have been implemented and used in two different text generation systems
the main tasks of the sentence planner are clause aggregation sentence boundary determination and paraphrasing decisions based on context
a usr is interpreted with respect to a plugging a mapping from holes to
the representations we will use resembles underspecified discourse representation and hole
efforts to exploit natural language processing nlp to aid information retrieval ir have generally involved augmenting a standard index of lexical terms with more complex terms that reflect aspects of the linguistic structure of the inter alia
however there is no consensus as to how to define an utterance unit
our approach to call routing is novel in its application of vector based information retrieval techniques to the routing process and in its extension of the vector based representation for dynamically generating disambiguation queries
we refer the readers to other works dealing with this problem brent murthy
second we compare our method against a standard widely available information retrieval system developed at cornell university
rhetorical structure theory posits that a coherent text plan consists of segments related to one another by rhetorical relations such as motiva tion or background
by the use of spoken audio verbal landmarks environmental audio such as traffic noise for a road and auditory icons earcons blattner et al NUM to denote specific events like the edge of a map a link to further maps or for the user to press for more information an audio tactile hypermedia is constructed conveying cartographic information
a vibro tactile mouse which registers the mouse s position over a desired spatial object on tonal interfaces for and the voice which can convert a two dimensional picture map or representation into a tonal
this relieves the syntactic dependency component of any need to be multiple headed and non projective
dg parsing of chinese have used statistical corpus based algorithms yuan and huang
we formalized these rules computationally in a finite state transducer
we should note that profile is part of a large system for information retrieval and summarization of news through information extraction and symbolic text generation
wordnet is an on line hierarchical lexical database which contains semantic information about english words including hypernymy relations which we use in our system
our source representation is a set of coreference chains specifically those chains of referring expressions produced by an information extraction system designed to participate in the muc NUM coreference
have revised litman and allen s dichotomy of plans into a trichotomy of discourse problem solving and domain plans
for example the syriac grammar reported contains NUM rules
for had the s list algorithm performing at NUM percent correct on three new york times articles while the best version of bfp performed at NUM percent
note that unlike we give no consideration to statistical confidence as we are after NUM recall whatever the cost to precision
analyzed the corpus to identify the cases of bridging descriptions that could be resolved using wordnet those for which we could use heuristics and those that could n t be interpreted at the moment
correspondence based transfer on f structures has been proposed in
the resulting representation is similar to a neo davidsonian style event but uses syntactic roles
the initialization of the word similarity matrix using wordnet a hand crafted semantic network arranged in a hierarchical structure may seem to be advantageous over simply setting it to the identity matrix as we have done
to compare these two approaches we tried to set the initial dis similarity between two words to the wordnet path length between their nodes lee and then learn the similarity values iteratively
which should therefore only be undertaken for corpora with both well defined and well represented genres where inherently fuzzy class boundaries are less likely to counteract the effect of careful feature selection
we modified c4 style algorithm to produce probability and used it for this purpose
recently cast some simple theories into a source channel framework using the bilingual canadian parliament proceedings as training data
the part of speech tagging uses a high performance tagger based on
this problem was pointed out by and they suggested two solutions NUM increasing the size of the mono lingual training corpora or NUM using bilingual corpora
this contrasts with lamarckian transformational thinking in which individuals themselves undergo direct changes transformations
the sa tags for the japanese language were based on the set proposed by and had NUM types
there is no obvious way to settle this a pr or but ch NUM ipulate that ram is preferred over smooth shift
evidence for this position is not conclusive and all found a higher percentage of shifts than retains
although lexical information is important in english segmentation what other information can help improve such segmentation
we how descriptions of occupations and proper noun phrases could be processed by finite state transducer fst
the basic underlying hypothesis is that intrasentential candidates are more salient than intersentential candidates as proposed for example and kameyama in press and that fine grained syntax based salience fades with time
showed how serious this problem can be almost NUM of the NUM NUM tuples of their test set do training set 4tuples
for example aspectual coercion such as iteration compromises indicator measurements
as represented by for example constraint gram null mar
these data objects are similar to discourse referents in discourse in that anaphoric expressions such as she are also associated with corresponding anaphoric entities
i show that the equational treatment of ellipsis proposed in can further be viewed as modeling the effect of parallelism on semantic interpretation
emphasizes the importance of understanding the meaning of the speech event for the speaker
we adapted a semi automated decision tree induction using c4 among diverse approaches to text categorization such as decision tree induction lewis et
NUM every element of NUM has a correspondent in s NUM no insertion of a segment the constraint ranking seems to be lcb com this is based b proposal of laryngeal neutralization
kiraz uses multi tape two level morphology to analyze some arabic data but despite the suggestive title must simulate prosodic operations such as add a mora by their extensionalized rule counterparts which refer to c or v segments instead of moras
the biggest improvement reported in the papers was NUM NUM from the inquery group at the university of massachusetts
a collaborative agent s first preference should be to address the rejected evidence since mckeown s focusing rules suggest that continuing a newly introduced topic is preferable to returning to a
the use of the centering transitions in brennan algorithm prevents it from being applied incrementally cf
as part of evaluating this belief core evaluates the evidence proposed by ea step NUM in figure NUM thus recursively invoking evaluate belief on both the proposed child belief on sabbatical lewis NUM in step NUM NUM and the proposed evidential relationship supports on sabbatical lewis NUM professor cs682 lewis in step NUM NUM
logan et al developed a dialogue system that is capable of determining whether or not evidence should be included to justify rejection of a single proposed belief
linguistic processing in the slt system is carried out by the core language engine
we admit here that while we have been aware of the fact for long time only after the dissemination of the closely related hypotheses of one sense per discourse gale and one sense we are able to articulate the hypothesis of one tokenization per source
while we have not been able to specify the notion of source used in the hypothesis to the same clarity as that of critical fragment and critical the above empirical test has made us feel comfortable to believe that the scope of the source can be sufficiently large to cover any single domain of practical interest
dependency grammar has a long tradition in syntactic theory dating back to at least tesni re s work from the thirties3 recently it has gained renewed attention as empirical methods in parsing are discovering the importance of relations between words see e.g. which is what dependency grammars model explicitly do but context free phrasestructure grammars do not
moreover a study presented shows that terminology extraction in english and in french is not symmetric
more recently in contrast to the statistical taggers rule based tagging algorithms have been suggested which were shown to reduce the error rate significantly
since german is a highly inflectional language the morphological algorithms used in morphy are rather complex and can not be described here in detail
i suspect this has happened because people assume tdm is a natural extension of the slightly less nascent field of data mining dm also known as knowledge discovery in databases and information archeology
swanson has shown how chains of causal implication within the medical literature can lead to hypotheses for causes of rare diseases some of which have received supporting experimental
for the history view we plan to use a spreadsheet layout as well as a variation on a slide sorter view which visage uses for presentation creation but not for history retention
we use a broad coverage to extract dependency triples from the text corpus
the second goal is to analyze the transactions run in a web based system be it to optimize the system or to find information about the clients using the system NUM this search centric view misses the point that we might actually want to treat the information in the web as a large knowledge base from which we can extract new never before encountered information
kempe NUM look back and look ahead in the conversion of hmms look back and look ahead in the conversion of hidden markov models into finite state transducers
consider the following slightly modified example p NUM NUM a bottle of tezgiiino is on the table
furthermore early work on class based language models was inconclusive
instead of employing the source channel paradigm for tagging more or less explicitly present e.g. hajji used in the past notwithstanding some exceptions such as maximum entropy and rule based taggers we are using here a direct approach to modeling for which we have chosen an exponential probabilistic model
two japanese terminological data are used in this study computer science and psychology ps japanese
we then use error tolerant finite state recognition to perform reverse spelling correction for identifying the erroneous words the finite state analyzer accepts that are very close to the correct words in the test corpus that it rejects
i describe such experiments briefly here further details regarding these experiments is
most other ambiguous verbs are more highly dominated by one sense in this
the algorithms of both parsers are based on parallel parsing algorithms for cfg
we chose a set of NUM verbs from each class divided into two groups each as will be explained below based primarily on the classification of verbs
for exampie the sparkle project puts tree bracketing and grammatical relations in two different layers of syntax
we tested randomly selected NUM sentences fi om the japanese edr
theory this does not generady entail semantic uniqueness although in certain special contexts it will yield the same effect via pragmatic means
or content based segmentation techniques may be applicable e.g. hearst
tg NUM is based on production system techniques that preserve the modularity of processing and linguistic knowledge
if an action fails backtracking can be invoked flexibly and efficiently using memoization techniques see
the method described can be seen as a simple case of the gradient descent method which does not need an initial lexicon but is computationally prohibitively expensive
NUM within centering theory which may be seen as modelling the process by which an entity is activated and brought into situations and events introduced by a whole sentence are ranked lower as preferred centers than entities introduced by major np arguments in the sentence
a prominent example for an early shallow generation system is ana which reports about stock market developments
the first was to grow a classification tree in the style of
each dialogue is divided into short clearly defined dialogue acts initiations i and acknowledgments a based on the top of the hierarchy given in
in the spoken language corpus we examined the switchboard corpus of telephone this type of link only accounts for NUM NUM of all anaphoric references
describe a corpus based approach to the resolution of pronouns which is evaluated for the neuter pronoun it
describe the phenomenon of abstract object anaphora and present restrictions on the set of potential antecedents
in lauri karttunen personal communication also proposed and demonstrated in an interlisp script the intersection of roots patterns and vocalizations as an alternative to the finite state solution which used a four tape finite state transducer transducer
cls participating in the working group suggested a typed feature logic formalism
the resulting type constraints are then compiled into definite clauses using the method described in
classic and finite state build underlying strings via concatenation only but this limitation is not characteristic of the overall theory but only of the computational implementations
NUM this principle was borrowed in the alpnet prototype analyzer for arabic but it used an implementation of two level morphology enhanced with a detouring mechanism that simulated the intersection of roots and patterns at runtime
there are several variations of this method that produce the same with different penalties in the size of the resulting transducer or in the performance but in the end the constraint of discontiguous dependencies is easily accomplished using finite state techniques
reflected in the modes of expression hypothesis
they use intonation and probabilistic language models
another approach as conducted by would be to consider all possible translations listed in the lexicon and to give them equal or possibly descending weight
some methods use keyword and key phrase detection to understand speech mainly because the speech recognition score is not high enough
this problem can be addressed via exclusion constraints i.e. annotations to forbid stated formulae having been used in deriving a given funtor s argument as proposed
the judges agreement on the classification task was calculated using the kappa coefficient siegel and tection and which measures inter rater agreement among a set of coders making category judgments
that is the starting point is a sense disambiguated spanish taxonomy automatically extracted from a monolingual dictionary
in semi automatic methods for associating a japanese lexicon to an english ontology using a bilingual dictionary are described
top down search is more sensitive to patterns in the data and less dependent on heuristics than the bottom up search used by similar
this representation adheres to the principles of object oriented design as described
our approach to lexical rules improves this situation by formalizing them in terms of default unification utilizing existing operations in the typed default feature structure tdfs representation language
contend that there is strong evidence to suggest that a large part of word sense ambiguity is not arbitrary but follows regular patterns
there are a variety of proposals for well formedness conditions for typed fss here we assume conditions on appropriate features
it is technically possible to reinterpret some lexical rules as lexical redundancy rules using constraint based techniques
for example the ale parser presupposes a phrase structure backbone which can be used to determine whether a constraint is to be interpreted bottom up or topdown
this solution is based on the observation that there are sub computations that are relatively cheap and as a result do not need tabling
the non parse type literals are processed according to the top down control strategy 1degthe notion of a parse type literal is closely related to that of a memo literal as in
it is then possible to share all the fsa of a lexicalized grammar in a single one with techniques presented in
NUM the problem of discerning the effects of differentiating word senses from the effects of inaccurate disambiguation was overcome using artificially created pseudo words substituting for instance all occurrences of banana or kalashnikov for banana kalashnikov that could be disambiguated with NUM accuracy substituting banana kalashnikov back to the original term in each occurrence either banana or kalashnikov
the size of the grammar was limited compared and corresponds to the sublanguage used in the gocad application
we extend our supertagging models to perform this task in a fashion similar to that
most of the really difficult cases for article selection as for example generics do not occur in this domain whilst both and build their theories around the problem of identifying these
thus by using a definite article the speaker expects the hearer to be able to identify the object he is talking about whilst with the use of an indefinite article a new referent is introduced into the discourse
the current framework has been designed as part of the dialogue and discourse processing component of the verbmobil machine translation system a large scale research project in the area of spontaneous speech dialogue translation between german english and
this draft was used as the base for compiling a french unl dictionary at geta
the third approach transfers both queries and documents into an interlingual representation bilingual thesaurus and language independent vector space models
null morphological filtering we filter each virtual document through the morphological processor of the bell labs text to speech to extract the root form of each word in the corpus
one of them is the current lack of a reasonable measure for word graph size and evaluation of their contents
relating the functional semantics to the fixpoint one we tbllow in proving that the fixpoint of the grammar transformation operator can be computed by applying the fimctional semantics to the set initg
for example recently studied a newswire corpus of about NUM NUM million chinese characters and reported that among all the NUM NUM different chain length l two characteroverlapping typd s ambiguous fragments which cumulatively occur NUM NUM times in the corpus only NUM fragments each has different tokenizations in different context and there is no such fragment in all the NUM NUM different chain length NUM twocharacter overlapping type NUM ambiguous fragments
interested parties are referred to the manual for detailed instructions and examples
rather than concatenate material in the draft as surface oriented sentence extraction summarizers do information in the draft is combined and excised based on revision rules involving aggregation and elimination operations
1note that professional abstractors do not attempt to fully understand the text often extremely technical material but use surface level features as above as well as the overall discourse structure of
a tree based system by uses an information theoretic approach for deciding alternative pronunciations based on the classification of a large context feature vector
to measure fluency without conducting an elaborate experiment involving human judgmentsl we fell back on some extremely coarse measurea based on word and sentence length computed by the gnu unix
in many useful cases including the example grammar provided by this stack bound is never reached and the system reports that the fsa it returns is exact
the last group of features are inspired in those when addressing unknown words
we extracted NUM NUM english japanese translations consisting of two base words from the edr technical terminology dictionary which contains about NUM NUM translations related to the information processing field japan electronic and segment japanese entries into two parts NUM
for example used a subset of the trec collection related to health topics and showed that combination of general and domain specific i.e. medical dictionaries improves the clir performance obtained with only a general dictionary
our research is partly motivated by the nacsis test collection for ir systems NUM which consists of japanese queries and japanese english abstracts extracted from technical papers we will elaborate on the nacsis collection in section NUM
used the translations of ambiguous words in a bilingual corpus as sense tags
also a hierarchical model makes use of the strict layer hypothesis of prosodic phrase structure assuming that a well formed utterance is comprised of major phrases which are in turn comprised of minor phrases
on the other hand according to more than NUM of the hungarian lexical morphemes are homographs
an abstract machine for unification grammars with application to an hpsg grammar for hebrew ph d thesis the technion israel institute of
and many others for more details on the automatic use of prosodic features for details on the machine learning architecture of the project and on the applications to automatic speech recognition
the swbd damsl dialog act tagset jura was adapted from the damsl tag set and consists of approximately NUM labels in orthogonal dimensions so labels from different dimensions could be ombined
in their analysis of NUM acknowledge tokens from telephone conversations found that yeah was used to initiate a turn about half the time while uh huh and mm hm were only used to take the floor NUM NUM of the time
the original switchboard discourse tagging which this project draws on was supported by the generosity workshop on innovative techniques in lvcsr the center for speech and language processing at johns hopkins university and the nsf via iri9619921 and iri NUM to elizabeth shriberg
in particular this strategy can often override incorrect decisions linked with strong centering preference or syntactic and semantic parallelism preferences see below
in a the given or known information or theme usually appears first and thus forms a coreferential link with the preceding text
the latter proposes the ranking subject direct object indirect object and noun phrases which are parts of prepositional phrases are usually indirect objects
and propose a search procedure based on dynamic programming that examines the source string sequentially
in text transformations in the source language are used to adapt the word ordering in the source strings to the target language grammar
we use chasen NUM NUM b as a morphological analyzer for japanese texts
in developing our fep type support tool we started with the text retrieval application which provides a morphological analyzer that automatically analyzes users input and extracts key words to retrieve relevant text from a database
might provide a principled way to do this
for uses orthographic syntactic and lexical features of the target and local context to train on
while also use large neural networks to resolve word senses their approach is quite different from ours
the roles of these goals and their interrelationships are explored in relation to the informationintention attention model of in more detail in
modus tollens for example is perfectly common with numerous real world examples in argumentation texts
freeman s work and its relation to other accounts of linked and convergent argumentation is explored more fully in
multiple subarguments conjoined to support a conclusion are the norm see for and these necessarily form parallel structures
report on an experiment with a string of NUM NUM zeroes and ones that are known to be ascii data organised in patterns of NUM as bytes but with the byte boundary marker missing
we discusses the npcompleteness of a related problem that of finding some permutation of a string that is acceptable to a given context free grammar
this is similar to abney s
we will not detail them here but refer the interested reader to
our computational approach uses a form of weighted abduction as the reasoning mechanism and modal operators to model context
an exemplar is a type of whose purpose is to determine for a given presentation request the general specification of the presentation regarding its macro structure its content and its format
one research group tried to use the dri core scheme on free flow conversations and had to radically modify it in order to achieve reliable coding
synchronous tag the mapping between two tree adjoining grammars was first proposed by
the referring expression module is largely based on the algorithm for incremental interpretation described in
table NUM contains comparison of the results achieved with the previous experiments on czech tagging
the variation in noun quantification being a semantic one NUM similar examples were but were discussed in terms of durativity and not of atomicity
conversational to clear speech durational measures particularly increases in duration appear as a common phenomenon among several analyses of speaking style
despite this lack of gives an item based description for a tomita style parser for the boolean semiring which is also more efficient than tomita s algorithm
the following example from gordon
space unfortunately prevents a full discussion theories of focus and the attentional state in this abstract
besides the anaphor type we also include morphosyntactic information like stem form and inflection attributes for each surface word as well as semantic codes for content words in this corpus
report on an effort to develop a more general evaluation tool for nlu systems
moreover clues are used about the grammatical and pragmatic functions of expressions as in or as well as rule based empirical approaches like or to determine the most salient referent
the claim that different parts of the attentional state are accessed when resolving pronouns and definite descriptions is supported broadly speaking by psycholinguistic research see e.g.
this intuitive impression was confirmed by a recent whose author tracked both the intuitive cb and the intuitive discourse focus of NUM map task conversations
attempts at exploring nonparallel corpora for terminology translation are very
the particulars of individual common sense knowledge are crucial to understanding any discourse
we must estimate some kind of reliable scores among possible segments and choose the relation having the maximum score
the centering model grosz is intended to describe the relationship between local coherence and the use of referring expressions
because of this we have not yet been able to conduct a fair quantitative assessment of objective NUM our productions were constructed with reference to a standard grammar beijing language and totalled NUM productions
the contribution of this paper is to propose an integrated platform for computer aided term extraction and structuring that results from the combination of lexter a term extraction tool and fastr NUM a term normalization tool
in the domain of corpus based terminology two types of tools are currently developed tools for automatic term and tools for automatic thesaurus
most of the work on np planning has considered only the referring function of the np
however note that in theory the complexity upper bound rises exponentially rather than polynomially with the size of the grammar just as for context free parsing whereas this is not a problem for wu s sbtg algorithm
the corpus was sentence aligned chinese words and collocations were extracted then translation pairs were learned via an em procedure
iconoclast is implemented in so that feature structures are represented by prolog terms and can be unified efficiently through prolog term unification
the input for the generation module vm geco NUM is generated by a semantic based transfer component see
but even with good implementations of the best of these improved algorithms parsers designed for wide coverage unification based phrase structure grammars using large hpsg style feature graphs spend around NUM NUM of their time unifying and copying feature and may allocate in the region of NUM NUM mbytes memory while parsing sentences of only eight words or so flickinger p c
a very early result on the weak generative equivalence of context free grammars and dgs suggested that dgs are incapable of describing surface word
report NUM NUM recall and NUM NUM for np and pp chunking without case labels
for extraction of a maximal probability parse in unlexicalized training we used schmid s lopar
from a descriptive viewpoint the syntactic construction is often cited to determine the possibility and scope of
from the cognitive pro
this system followed a more standard information retrieval approach to text ranking described
table NUM reports values for the kappa k coefficient of for forward and backward functions NUM
just how the speaker turns are broken into utterances has a huge impact on the success of the
sas another way of reducing the sparse data problem we clustered prepositions using the method described in
therefore an appropriate level of granularity is selected by condensing groups of inference steps to yield proofs built from macro steps which is motivated by rules of the natural deduction
the forward values of many of the items in our parser related to unary and epsilon productions can be computed off line once per grammar which is an idea
this paper describes the motivation and design of the corpus encoding standard ces ide an encoding standard for linguistic corpora intended to meet the need for the development of standardized encoding practices for linguistic corpora
it is also clear that the usability of bilingual concordances would be greatly improved if the system could indicate both items of a translation pair and if phrases could be looked up with the same ease and precision as single words
this generalization ability is provided by using temporal synchrony variable binding tsvb to represent constituents
furthermore given a sentence aligned parallel corpus of two languages and almost parse information for the sentences of one of the languages one can rapidly develop a grammar for the other language using supertagging as
for example using traditional tag parsing methods such are it is inefficient to parse with a large ltag grammar for english such as xtag
as a syntactically annotated corpus we used edr
the first model is c e shannon s n gram
srinivas have tested the performance of a trigram model typically used for part of speech tagging on supertagging on restricted domains such as atis and less restricted domains such as wall street journal wsj
at the core of the microsoft english grammar meg is a broad coverage parser that produces conventional phrase structure analyses augmented with grammatical relations this parser is the basis for the grammar checker in
the key idea is to have a common representation for all the possible interpretations of an ambiguous expression as in
semantic classes for verbs have been found to be useful for determining document type and text similarity
for each a define generating functions lcb ga rcb section NUM NUM
for example the syntactic semantic constraints can be used for word sense disambiguation the subcategorization and alternations from evca comlex are better resources for parsing wordnet enriched with syntactic information might also be of value to many other applications
for an excellent exposition of this theory we refer the reader to
where k is the number of parameters in NUM NUM sl j the true model and s the data size which is near optimal
this approach has proved to be quite successful as a preprocessor in information extraction systems
in botafogo et al a node that has a high out degree is called an index node while a node that has a high in degree is called a reference node in their analysis of hypertext
the extraction grammar developed in covers a variety of pre modifier and appositional noun phrases
while attention for basic concepts and techniques is indispensable for any course in this field one may wonder whether implementation issues need to be so prominent as they are in the text books of say
profiles for a large number of entities were compiled using our earlier system profile
all of NUM more recent work in the area of single utterance reasoning includes that of
for both of these reasons the classification schemes that we tried differ in several respects from those adopted in prior corpus based studies
all schemas generate connections of intelligibility which affect the coherence of a
this section presents a simple bidirectional translation between lfg f structures and term representations which serve as input to and output of a transfer component developed within the verbmobil project
lrs and their application time in nlp have received a lot of attention e.g. therefore i will not develop them further in this paper as the rules themselves activated by the lexical processor produce different entries with neither type sub type relations nor disjunction between the semantic types of the old and new entries
on closer inspection though the rewriting approach to syntactic f structure term translations presented above suffers from the very same problems that were met by the correspondence based approach in
it turns out that there are important structural similarities between f structures and udrss f structures can be read as udrss and hence be assigned an underspecified truth conditional interpretation
as in the correspondence based approach often can only be assigned wide scope over like if the transfer formalism allows reference to and rewriting of partial nodes
it has been well documented in the literature of this past decade that a sense enumeration approach fails from a theoretical point of view to capture the core meaning of words e.g. and complicates from a practical viewpoint the task of nlp by multiplying ambiguities in analysis and choices in generation
this corresponds to a focusing heuristic that captures expectations for new utterances in an
lifestream manages e mail by focusing on temporal viewpoints
potential sources for such options are comparative genre authorship attribution content analy null sis and quantitative
reports good results in a genre classification task based on a subset of these features while show that a prudent selection of cues based on words characters and ratios can perform at least equally well
if we assume that the culture specific conventions which form the basis for assigning a given text to a certain genre are reflected in the style of the text and if that style can be characterised quantitatively as a tendency to favor certain linguistic options over we can then proceed to search for linguistic features which both discriminate well between our genres and can also be computed reliably from unannotated text
for our categorisation experiments we chose a relational k nearest neighbour k nn classifier ribl and two feature based k nn algorithms learning vector quantisation lvq and ibli ig
dale discussed the generation of pronouns in the context of work on generating referring
the pdt also contains machine assigned tags and lemmas for each word using a tagger described in haji
for instance consider breakers in
the choice of the ga introduces various psychological and linguistic assumptions that can not be justified
to identify conjunctions lists and appositives we first parsed the corpus using an efficient statistical parser trmned on the penn wall street journal treebank
a similar approach is also planned for research in topic detection and tracking tdt
this is done in the spirit of the dependency by selecting the noun to its right in the compound with the highest probability of occuring with the word in question when occurring in a noun compound
current and future work includes further development of the learning methods and their integration design of a rule merging mechanism comparison of individual vs collective grammars distributed grammar development over the world wide web and integration of gsg s run time stage into the janus speech recognition system
w ker in walker henceforth wjp p NUM
in sift s statistical model augmented parse trees are generated according to a process similar to that
i assume that the initial candidate set produced by gen can be predictable and finite following the previous
to avoid misjudging u sot as optimal align left NUM is clarified as NUM and another align constraint such as NUM is proposed
another approach emphasizes the context dependent interplay between perceiving features of the systems under comparison and creating representations that are suitable for mutual mapping
the claritech group milic frayling evans tong is a good example of the second type of manual trec NUM runs
used overlapping windows of NUM words to help rerank the top NUM documents before selecting the final documents for use in expansion
university of waterloo interactively refined a set of boolean queries into a single tiered boolean query for each topic
this classification is a modification of the damsl coding scheme which comes out of the standardisation workshop on discourse coding scheme and a coding scheme proposed by japanese standardisation working group on discourse coding scheme adapted to the characteristics of this meeting scheduling task and japanese
quences in three party dialogues the algorithm to track the initiative was proposed by
it is well known that the characteristics of hapax legomena are similar to those of unknown words
we used the c4 NUM decision tree induction and the backpropagation algorithm for artificial neural nets as the learning algorithms to generate the classifiers
word segmentation accuracy is expressed in terms of recall and precision as is done in the previous research
in content analysis they require a kappa value over NUM NUM for deriving a tentative conclusion but in a guideline of medical science a kappa value NUM NUM g NUM NUM are judged to be moderate
we recommend these readers to reexamine some arguments
NUM pedersen bruce present the results of experiments covarying these measures and the direction of search
NUM the freely available software package coco performs forward and backward search using all of the measures
this is the main change to the discourse structure
the grammar formalism is described as a constraint based tag like
in the spirit of tile goal driven demand side approach to computational applications of language processing the process of acquiring this knowledge has been split into two steps i acquiring the descriptive declarative knowledge about a language and ii deriving operational knowledge content for the processing engines from this descriptive knowledge
the exploitation of this kind of knowledge is essential for achieving practical simultaneous
the group metaphorical in table NUM contains event verbs with idiomatic uses that are stative
since we expect that the source language informant will not be well versed in computational linguistics in general or in recent approaches to building morphological analyzers e.g. antworth
this way of analysis is known as the nondefeasibility
in standard derivational approaches to syntax the notion of grammatical relationship is typically parasitic on that of phrase structure
these are some of the issues of high interest chanier
other investigations are focusing on which presentation mixes e.g. keyffames named entities one line summary full video source are most effective for story retrieval and fact extraction from news
buggy by is another system more oriented towards student error diagnostic
in order to extract them we parsed the ptb structures using a larlr NUM parser implemented in lisp
setting two different thresholds governing the possibility and in as paper original and goodlog
more generally pinker s notion of a fully productive narrow class lexical rule is falsified by many examples cited in and sch
in order to measure the agreement in a more precise way we used the kappa statistic recently proposed by carletta as a measure of agreement for
figure NUM shows the hpsg analysis of she saw kim
experimented with chinese english translation while this paper experiments with english chinese translation
lexical amalgamation of context follows the same approach
one of the key points of this paper is that all five of these commonly computed quantities can be described as elements of
this method is not practical because altering the structures of the grammar damages the linguistic information stored in the original grammar
NUM shows that the connective itself may sometimes force a given reading
in a similar vein we also created a simple common noun classification module
since then various shallow methods including canned text parts and some template based techniques have been utilized e.g. in cogenthelp in the system described in and in idas
the response strategy is similar to that of previous frame based dialogue systems
in order to provide a uniform representation of term and document vectors and to reduce the dimensionality of the document vectors we applied the singular value decomposition to the m x n matrix c to obtain NUM where r is the rank of c and they are arranged in descending order s1 NUM s2 NUM sr r o
see regarding term assignment and proof normalisation for linear logic
in laboratory experiments found that attending to speech repairs and the content of an utterance are mutually inhibitory and found that subjects have difficulty remembering the actual words in the reparandum
the method has been applied to attach substantial fragments of the spanish taxonomy derived from dgile to the english wordnet using a bilingual dictionary for connecting both hierarchies
the algorithm has been applied to pos tagging shallow parsing and to word sense
many apparent counterexamples to the presupposition of uniqueness for definite descriptions are solved by appeal to this principled contextual enric ment as discussed at
split the vocabulary into NUM sets general words on topic words and off topic words and then use a non linear interpolation to compute the language model
strube introduced a novel pronoun resolution algorithm that handled intraand intersentential anaphora uniformly
in collaborative investigated the benefits of using existing an broadcast news topic hierarchy extracted from topic labels as a basis for language model computation
the tdfs formalism extends typed feature structure formalisms such as those by allowing for structures that include default information
thus we modify and extend the analysis of dative in by providing a more adequate and restrictive formalization of this type of semiproductive lexical rule
i adopt the concept of local developed from the concept of finite state and that of dynamic
nevertheless we can represent the relative productivity of each lexical rule by calculating the ratio of possible to attested outputs for each rule
recently bouma have proposed a lexical rule of adjunct introduction which can recursively add adverbial categories to the subcat list of a verbal category
as shown the presented research was carried out at the university of tfibingen germany as part of the sonderforschungsbereich NUM
however it differs from recent proposals by for to associate probabilities with values on paths in a tfs formalism underlying hpsg as the probabilistic information is much less fine grained
the search for narrow classes and full productivity seems futile for rules of verb alternation because such rules are inherently semiproductive in the same manner that derivational rules are often characterized as semiproductive
our approach is simpler and computationally more efficient than
the mutual information clustering algorithm were used for this
we believe that systematic study perhaps starting with the NUM cue phrases given appendix a will show which of them use presupposition in realizing discourse relations
we model conjugation based alternation by postulating verb paradigms based on conjugational analysis of the kana suffix to a given
an alternative to term only expansion is a full text expansion described in
the structure we have adopted to describe the characters has first been proposed
null the approach presented in this paper has been tested successfully on some NUM sentences of the verbmobil
unfortunately even for sublanguages of fairly modest size in many cases no complete disambiguation can be achieved
adapted from lochbaurn grosz NUM
our work is part of a full summarization system which extracts sets of similax sentences themes in the first stage for input to the components described here
the minimum message length mml principle of is used to compute the complexity of the pfsa
the structure of the text is recorded using some notation for discourse structure suitable for the text planner being used in the text generator say rst
the linguistic component consists of a lexical chooser which determines the high level sentence structure of each sentence and the words that realize each semantic role and sentence generator
book about expert systems such as stresses twice in the introduction the importance of explanation but provides no further mention of explanation in the remaining NUM pages
in related work have also looked at the problem of summarization identifying eight aggregation operators e.g. conjunction around noun phrases that apply during generation to create more concise text
for a discussion of the distinction between domain communication knowledge and domain independent communication knowledge and for an argument in favor of the need for dck see
a complete technical description is given
the lcs is considered a subset of mental representation that is the language of mental representation as realized in language
the most common form of aggregation is expressed
this algorithm is quite similar to the well known cart and c4 but it incorporates some particularities in order to better fit the domain at hand
more recently two parallel works van combined with a remarkable success the output of a set of four tuggers based on different principles and feature modelling
has shown the importance of iru s inforinationally redundant utterances in efficient discourse
caraballo and charniak figures of merit use the geometric mean to compute a figure of merit that is independent of constituent length
all definition sentences in rsk were analyzed by juman a japanese morphological analyzer and knp a japanese syntactic and case analyzer
furthermore a wide coverage dictionary describing semantic roles of verbs in machine readable form has been constructed by a great deal of labor
augmented the pure pcfg by introducing a number of lexical attributes
in order to classify newspaper articles into small domain we used an encyclopedia of current terms chiezo
since formalisms i are used in the family of the patr parsing hereafter they will be called patr iike formalisms
4eisner p NUM in fact suggested that the labeling system can be implemented in the grammar by templates or in the processor by labeling the chart entries
but as pointed p NUM this is not spurious ambiguity in the technical sense just multiple derivations due to alternative lexical category assignments
however some surface characteristics of the language such as lack of case marking in certain constructions puts the burden of type shifting on the
argue that the generation of natural language reports from a database with numerical data can often be based on low tech processing language engineering techniques such as pattern matching and template filling
null present a computational treatment of japanese english transliteration which we adapt here to the case in arabic
i life ai is also famous but we do not discuss it because it does not follow carpenter s tfs definition
our evaluation based on NUM examples anaphors from a indicates a success rate of NUM NUM and critical success rate NUM NUM
recall of retrieved pairs of relevant segments precision of pairs of relevant segments of retrieved pairs of relevant segments ii of retrieved pairs of segments the first experiment is done for a large manual of which is NUM NUM mb large
the is the closest related research effort
were not able to separately code yes answers and agreements which suggests that their study might be extended in this way
a continuer is a short utterance which plays discourse structuring roles like indicating that the other speaker should go on talking jefferson
extraction several works describe methods to extract terms or candidate terms in english and or french
it is our claim that enhanced encoding procedures in the form of discourse tagging and labeling may be harmoniously linked by means of a consistent to support accurate conversion of dialogues and discourse into a more stable format
ccg is summarized in NUM
the reader is referred for linguistic justification of this ordering
this view reflects the situation in logic programming where developments in alternative definitions for predicate logic semantics led to implementations of various program composition operators
hammond insists that ot based syllabification be made as a parser which does not need to consider epenthesis or deletion
the first approach translates queries into the document language while the second approach translates documents into the query language
nachtegaal reports on a small experiment which was carried out to test the accentuation algorithm of d2s
their intentions guide their behavior and their conversational partners recognition of those intentions aids in the latter s understanding of
table NUM taken from provides examples of the tag trigger pair effect
in this way a single misclassified np may cause multiple noun phrases to be misclassified in new texts acting as an infection
nevertheless in a recent article report that one of the bottlenecks in designing ne recognition systems is the limited availability of large gazetteers particularly gazetteers for different languages NUM
second there tends to be a fluent transition from the speech that precedes the onset of the reparandum to the alteration
hepple introduces a method of first order compilation for implicational linear logic to provide a basis for efficient theorem proving of various categorial formalisms
for example the cause effect relation is lexicalized into accomplishment and the means end relation can be expressed by an adjunct event noun followed by the case particle de
in the previous study we have classified verbs into NUM semantic categories and for each category we have given a lexical conceptual structure lcs representation
we can rewrite the cky algorithm to compute the inside probabilities as shown in
based on discourse markers extracted from lexical syntactic and semantic processing the approach of uses NUM unary and binary attributes lexical syntactic semantic position matching category topic during decision tree training
using these proposals as a point of departure we shall develop our own proposal functional centering
this function returns a suitable identification constraint for a parameter pi in the context of an act type NUM
our formalism for production was built with four groups of operations for more details NUM low level operations assignments conditionals and rarely used iterations
transfer driven machine translation tdmt has been proposed and an efficient method of spoken dialog translation
we conclude that the program of treating all exceptions to dative as systematic as opposed to accidental fails for dative movement and will we suspect fail for most verb diathesis alternations
computational linguistics volume NUM number
the performance function is derived through multivariate linear regression with user satisfaction as the dependent variable and all the other measures as independent variables
our method for learning to optimize dialogue strategy selection combines the application of paradise to empirical data with algorithms for learning optimal strategy choices
recently have described a version of structured discourse representation theory sdrt that also incorporates the semantic contributions of both presuppositions and assertions
the apple pie parser is a natural language syntactic analyzer developed by satoshi sekine at new york university
for example in the development of hpsg from gpsg several syntactic metarules concerning the location of empty categories in unbounded dependency constructions are restated as lexical rules
we have presented a new approach to word order which preserves traditional notions semantically motivated dependencies topological fields while being fully lexicalized and formally
introduced f precedence into lfg which allows to express on f structure constraints on the order of the c structure nodes mapping to the current f structure
one of the great advantages of the turing test is that it allows the interrogator to evaluate almost all of the evidence that we would assume to constitute
if we represent each such predicate argument attachment as an arc in a directed graph we can view the predicate argument attachment structure of a derivation as a dependency graph in much the same way as candito and kahane interpret the original derivation trees
the amr language is composed of concepts from the sensus knowledge base rcb including all of wordnet and keywords relating these concepts to each other an amr is a labeled directed graph or feature structure derived from the penman sentence plan
we face a classical bias versus variance dilemma here geman as the independence assumptions implicit in the pcfg model are weakened the number of parameters that must be estimated i.e. the number of productions increases
the model is based on the collaborative planning framework of sharedplans
to evaluate the performance of part of speech taggers on the proper noun identification task we ran an hmm trigram and the brill tagger brill NUM on our corpus
to our knowledge the work of are the only ones that are based on learning from an annotated corpus
to build such list of stop words we ran the sequence strategy and single word assignment on the brown corpus and reliably collected NUM most frequent sentence initial words
she conducted experiments using the trec collection in which all terms in the queries were expanded using a combination of synonyms hypernyms and hyponyms
define supertagging as the process of assigning the best supertag to each word
our predicate argument structure based thesatmis is based on the method proposed by although hindle did not apply it to information retrieval
also a less restricted set of features permits more oppot tunity for inconsistency in a given coder s markings and disagreement among coders
for a commercial implementation it would be better to follow the standard proposed by the ipa which has been approved by the iso and included in the unicode definitions
attempts at computational morphology in the west to lead to the almost simultaneous publication of two major and
developed an arabic morphological system also designed to carry out both analysis and generation capable of dealing with vowelized semivowelized and nonvowelized arabic words
the following type axioms taken from the large systemic english grammar nxgi shall illustrate the nature of systems in a systemic grammar
NUM there are many other features to investigate in future work such as features based on tags assigned to previous utterances see e.g. and features based on semantic classes such as positive and negative polarity adjectives and reporting
we would like to apply our learning approach to the large data set mentioned in wall street journal corpus sections NUM NUM as training material and section NUM as test material
this time the chunker achieved a f l score of NUM NUM which is half a point better than the results obtained by NUM NUM other chunker rates for this data accuracy NUM NUM precision NUM NUM recalh NUM NUM
the first consists of the simple ratio dml between the highest and sec NUM ond highest ranking scores sl and s2 the odds ratio in the manner of
the scoring method utilised in this research for both method NUM and method NUM is an adaptation of the tf idf model best known in the context of term weighting for information retrieval ir tasks
he points out that in his theory word grammar multiple relations between two elements are allowed and that a word may depend on more than one head simultaneously see p NUM
these are discussed in full in ss6
grapheme phoneme g b alignment is defined as the task of maximally segmenting a grapheme compound into morpho phonic units and aligning each unit to the corresponding substring in the phoneme compound
one example of a pseudo passive that is a passive with a stranded preposition is given in NUM and some relative clause examples are illustrated in NUM where the preposition is said to be dangling mel p NUM
an interesting solution has been using constraint solving to group res into mrs
regular expressions had to be conathe hyphenation task itself was defined as a finite state transducer macro hyph replace syll the operator replace target leftcontext rightcontext implements leftmost and longest match
for an agent g to have an individual plan for an act o it must satisfy the requirements given below
production of new dictionaries even only crude drafts from available ones has been much less treated and it seems that no general computational framework has been proposed see eg don
also by partially lexicalising the rule extraction process i.e. by using some more frequent words as well as the part of speech tags we may be able to achieve parsing performance similar to the best results in the field obtained
it is coordinated with a large arabic
following we will refer to that agent as the icp for initiating conversational participant the other participant is the ocp
dsps are distinguished from other intentions by the fact that they like certain utterance level intentions are intended to be recognized
the term representation is inspired by earlier work which uses terms as a quasisemantic representation for transfer and generation
structural misalignment is treated in semantics construction involving a restriction operator where f structures are related to possibly sets of disambiguated semantic representations
even more so when existing resources can be interfaced qua semantic representations in our case the tested transfer methodology and resources developed in
we are using an abbreviated version of the minimally recursive style of encoding for the semantics mrs described by
it NUM in what follows we assume familiarity with the basic axioms of probability theory and with statistical estimation e.g.
both stages are performed by use of finite state lexical
this model can be evaluated using coco as described on pages NUM NUM of
suppose we want to match the following list of recognizers against the string topological and insert a marker in each boundary position
due to sparseness of data one must define equivalence classes amongst the contexts w i NUM which can be done by limiting the context to an n gram language
a way of measuring the effectiveness of the estimated probability distribution is to measure the perplexity that it assigns to a test corpus
as this verb has also a third argument expressing the material a d are which is syntactically optional but participates in the logical expression of the event see example 7a above
of course many tasks other than those listed above have already benefitted from partial automation NUM additionally it has been shown how a computational inheritance model can be used for structuring lexical information relevant for phonology
scatter gather is clustering information based on user interaction
in particular we address the semantic representation of syntactically unexpressed arguments we put forward a treatment of this kind of optional complements in a framework that combines hpsg syntax and the semantic approach in
we have already used our pos based model to rescore word graphs which results in a one percent absolute reduction in word error rate in comparison to a
as a case of combining multimedia contents there is a research of captioned images
the different uses of pronouns and non pronominalised nps have also been noted by although with a view to reference generation
put roughly given some input words the resulting word senses must be reusable together in an adaptable exemplar for more details
however there is a well known trade off between theoretical linguistic sophistication and practical performance which is applicable here
parameterizing phonetic expectation based on a short sample of speech or expectations in context mirrors what people do in speech processing generally independent of the rating context
since predicate argument structure is a natural way to represent constituent dependencies we chose a dependency based representation called dsynt kittredge and mel
qiao that we have been trying out in our department recently
for the needs of the evaluation we manually segmented all three versions of the text into sentences and then produced reference sentence alignments using the manual
according to levin the intransitive form may be best in the absence of the NUM
apart from the passive this is the complete alternation space of to drain according catalogue
the preliminary labeling by keyword matching used in this paper is similar to the seed collocations
they have also provided a foundation for an approach to principle based parsing via compilation into tree automata
a test set was produced in exactly the same way as the training set described above from usa today and mercury news editions
nlp efforts addressing specific corpora such as all had to address metonymic phenomena because of its high frequency
other types of query expansions including general purpose thesauri or lexical databases e.g. wordneq have been found generally unsuccessful in information
result research in the area of pronunciation has developed both direct and indirect measures of speech quality and pronunciation accuracy none of which seem to model human raters at any level
another method for reducing data sparseness has been introduced recently by
identifies three dimensions along which discourse structure schemes can be classifted granularity content structuring mechanisms
compare the given in figure NUM to the inside algorithm of figure NUM notice that while the inside and recognition algorithms are very similar the outside algorithm is quite a bit different
the concept initiative is defined by whittaker and stenton using a classification of utterance types assertions commands questions and prompts
proposed a computational model to track belief changes of a pilot and an air traffic controller in air traffic control atc communication
for japanese word segmentation and ocr error correction proposed a modified version of the brown model
lezius give an overview on some german tagging projects
recent work exploits semantic relations between text units for content representation such as synonymy and co reference
instead of matching terms in queries and documents richardson used wordnet to compute the semantic distance between concepts or words and then used this term distance to compute the similarity between a query and a document
a recent dispenses with the weights while still relying on the same regularity assumption
several researchers have developed models that incorporate aspectual class to assess temporal constraints between
a new bigger version has been made available recently but we have not still adapted it for our collection
we look at three very interesting classes of verbs unergatives unaccusatives and object drop
it may be instructive to explore the stability of the routing techniques in the face of different relevance judgments especially given that real user judgments are known to be extremely
researchers at cornell ran the version of smart used in each of the seven trec conferences against each of the seven ad hoc test sets buckley mitra walz
of particular note is the at t investigation into conservative enrichment to avoid the additional noise caused by using larger corpora all five disks for query expansion
many mainstream systems and formalisms would satisfy these criteria including ones such as the university of pennsylvania treebank which are purely syntactic though of course only syntactic properties could then be extracted
for a clear statement of this position
figure NUM from p225
since we need to choose between an underlying tl phonologiced model and one based on the sl we will make the selection based on the language identification decision as to the apparent phonological identity of the sample as sl or tl based on the sample s phonological and acoustic features
i assume here that the coverage problem has been solved to the extent that the system s grammar and lexicon license the correct analyses of utterances often enough for practical usefulness rayner
NUM we developed two versions of the system one that only attempts to classify subsequent mention and discourse new definite descriptions and one that also attempts to classify bridging references poesio
we take the standard notion of items and use the term anticipation to mean an item which still has symbols right of its dot
2however recent progress on is encouraging
the model employs a stochastic version of an inversion transduction grammar or
the third system uses memory based learning as described by henceforth tagger m for memory
in order to implement the experimental methodology just described we employed the follow data preparation method i gather verb object pairs using the cass partial partition set of pairs into ten folds
most of these studies try to establish a relationship between the coherence relations found in the text and the discourse markers used to signal them linguistically very often grote pit
we can approximate this by going to an indexed linear logic a conservative extension of the system of figure NUM similar to hepple s
NUM NUM paraphrasing the meaning of the connective the use of paraphrase tests is a very frequent method to analyze the meaning of connectives pit
several have suggested that clustering methods by reducing data to a small set of representatives might perform less well than nearest neighbors averaging type methods
while a uniform structure is sometimes imposed as with partitur established practice and existing tools may give rise to corpora transcribed using different formats for different levels
because of the way tag s edl captures dependencies it is not problematic to have translations more complex than word for word mappings abeill
the coconut corpus is a set of dia ogues in which the two conversants collaborate on a task of deciding what furniture to buy for a house di
in mapping between say english and french there is a lexicalised tag for each language for an overview of such a grammar
using the muc coreference scoring algorithm this had a precision of NUM and a recall of NUM NUM the use of full hand tagged reference resolution caused a substantial increase of the answdrecall metric
we created hand tagged named entity data which allowed us to measure the performance of alembic the accuracy fmeasure was NUM NUM see for a description of the standard muc scoring metric
trcebank to produce algorithms inspired by hobbs baseline
similarity metric based on resuik s similarity measures for noun groups b
null term variant extraction in fastr differs from preceding works such as because it relies on a shallow syntactic analysis of term variations instead of window based measures of term overlaps
many authors have developed dependency theories that cover cross linguistically the most significant phenomena of natural language syntax the approaches range from generative formalisms to lexically based descriptions to hierarchical organizations of to constrained
chunks are nonrecursive non overlapping constituent parts of sentences
applied memory based sequence learning mbsl to np chunking and subject object identification
the part of speech tagger is applied to disambiguate the lexical category of the words and to provide their lemmatized form
the cohesion between two words is measured as in by an estimation of the mutual information based on their collocation frequency
unlike the versions of lexical rules this interpretation can not be incorporated into a monotonic constraint based formalism since the operation of lexical rules is essentially nonmonotonic in that the incorporation of additional information into the input may result in loss of information from the output
this improves on the control principle that lexical rules should only be applied if no interpretation was applicable that did not involve a lexical rule since it allows for cases such as turkey where the derived meat use is more frequent than the nonderived animal use in the corpora which we have examined
lexical rules in hpsg are interpreted as conditional relationships between lexical entries represented as constraints on tfss e.g. p NUM n NUM
in view of the unrestricted generative power of conventional hpsg style naive generative application of recursive or cyclic rules can lead to nontermination during parsing
for example in attempting to differentiate the dative alternating and nonalternating subclasses in 8a and 8b NUM NUM characterizes those in 8a as verbs of continuous imparting of force in some manner causing accompanied motion and those in 8b as verbs of continuous causation of motion in a deictically specified direction
we argue that there is a family of dative constructions that exhibit the same syntactic properties and related semantic properties exemplified in NUM
instead we argue who in turn is influenced by theories of semiproductivity developed for morphology that rules of verb alternation are sensitive to both type and token frequency effects that determine language users assessments of the degree of acceptability of a given derived form and also their willingness to apply a rule in producing or interpreting a novel form
goldberg argues that 6e and 6f are licensed by a metaphorical extension of the transfer relation by which causal events are viewed as transfers
jackendoff also argues however that constructions need to be treated as a kind of phrasal lexical item whose idiosyncratic meaning is learned like that of a NUM
see among others
since this graph is acyclic and topologically sorted vertices are integers and edges always connect a vertex to a larger vertex we have chosen the dag shortest path algorithm which runs in o v e
lambert NUM build plan operator
the vectile system is based on the wordspae model
ea is pronounced differently in eat threat heart etc and many english multi letter combinations are realized as a single phoneme in pronunciation so f if ph and gh can all map to f
previously we showed how the entropy of text mapped onto part of speech tags could be reduced if clauses and phrases were explicitly marked
there has recently been much interest in the mlir task
the first raised by hull et al is that generating multiple translations breaks the term independence assumption of the vector space model
capturing this information automatically does not present the same difficulties as producing a full prosodic annotation a method is described by
in a quantitative evaluation on a corpus of architect the algorithm correctly resolved about NUM per cent of type b pronouns including possessives
as boundaries found by the method are weighted and sorted in decreasing order
the results of the proposed algorithm were compared against those of the previous algorithm which relies solely on target language
the separation of these two requirements NUM a more precise account of what it means to be able to identify an object is beyond the scope of this paper for further details see the
in order to construct a dsynt we first run our sentences through collin s robust statistical
as we have argued in this corresponds exactly to the behavior of the back off algorithm of so that it comes as no surprise that the accuracy of both methods is the same
however the effectiveness of therapy has been asserted to be most highly correlated with four contributory factors psyhcotherapeutic method NUM therapeutic relationship NUM client situation NUM client expectancy NUM miller
a recent review of the field states that not one out of hundreds of methods has been shown to be more effective than any other method this includes the failure of psychotropic methods to be any better than talk therapies miller
this simple approach has proven quite effective for some systems for example the cornell group reported that adding simple collocations to the list of available terms can increase retrieval precision by as much as NUM
investigated morphology based paraphrasing in the context of a term recognition task
work in summarization using symbolic techniques has tended to focus more on identifying information in text that can serve as a summary than on generating the summar and often relies heavily on
at least four previous systems developed elsewhere use natural language to sum null computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM marize quantitative data fog and lfs
we present a system called summons NUM shown in figure NUM which introduces novel techniques in the following areas it briefs the user on information of interest using tools related to information extraction conceptual combination and text generation
propose a so called dictionary correlation kit dck in a dialogue based environment for correlating word senses across a pair of mrds such as the ldoce and the lloce
recently research interest in recognizing non native speech has increased providing direct comparisons of recognition accuracy for non native speakers at different levels of proficiency
lesk describes the first mrd based wsd method that relies on the extent of overlap between words in a dictionary definition and words in the local context of the word to be disambiguated
chen and chang maintains the position that intersense relations are mostly idiosyncratical thereby making it difficult to characterize them in a general way so as to identify them
we briefly describe the on line thesauri wordnet roget s thesaurus and lloce which have been used as word sense divisions in the computational linguistics literature
professional abstractors carry out substantial revision and editing
all four algorithms were run on a NUM utterance subset of the penn treebank annotated corpus provided by
our approach using an ordinary dictionary is similar to the approach used to creat mind net
this approach was used in a named entity recognition system where it proved to be one of the key factors in the system achieving a nearly human performance in the 7th message understanding conference muc NUM
given a classification problem the main goal is to construct several independent classifiers since it has been proven that when the errors committed by individual classifiers are uncorrelated to a sufficient degree and their error rates are low enough the resulting combined classifier performs better than all the individual systems
it should be noted that bfp makes use of centering rule NUM lrc does not use the transition generated or rule NUM in steps NUM and NUM since rule NUM s role in pronoun resolution is not yet for a critique of its use by bfp
in this project the new algorithm is tested against three leading syntax based pronoun resolution methods hobbs and bfp
on the other hand nearest neighbors averaging in its most general form offers more flexibility in defining the set of most similar words and their relative weights
the other is written in phoneme lattice which is obtained by a phoneme recognition system
pos v NUM sign agrsubj signagr per 3rd sing agr 3rd j NUM sign v agr sing 3rd sign agr sing 3rd feature structure NUM is a o ped feature structure used in typed unification grammars
no NUM takes values of frequent words or thesaurus
the tool set for tea is constantly being extended recent additions include a prototype symbolic classifier shallow parser choi forthcoming sentence segmentation algorithm and a pos
several proposals have already addressed the anaphora resolution problem by deliberately limiting the extent to which they rely on domain and or
we observe that a ps imp sequence is sufficient to achieve the explanation effect but that this sequence is constrained by the type of causality shows the influence of many others parameters like the voice active vs passive the presence of a relative clause etc
exercise i dutch syllable structure hyphenation for requires that complex words are split into morphemes and mor null
one possible explanation could rely on the observation that the result relation brought by donc holds not at the propositionnal level not even at the aspectual i.e. point of view on events but rather at an attitudinal level
obtaining compact constraints corresponds to avoiding unnecessary expansions of disjunctions in graph
looking at constraint based formalisms as tentatives to restrict the rather rich theoretical inventory of generative spe theory it becomes obvious that om indeed fills a conceptual gap
the computation times were measured using a bottom up chart in allegro common lisp NUM NUM running on digital unix
for an interesting hybrid of directional rule application constraint 13contour tones are the falling tone mbfi the rising tone tubal and the falling rising tone mbd
NUM restriction on unification namely that two categories a and b fail to unify if they contain mutually inconsistent information
rambow introduces the multiset valued linear indexed grammar formalism lcb rcb lig
more recently ramshaw marcus in press apply transformation based to the problem
the population distribution was estimated by the bootstrap
we argue that dm is crucially structured internally and for its representation we adopt the file card model based on the file cf
we used bunrui goi hyou bgh as the japanese thesaurus
multiset is an example of the setoriented approach
the neural networks responsible for topical and local disambiguation are then combined to form a single contextual representation
our model exploits the same kind of tag n gram information that forms the core of many successful tagging models for example
there are some morphological description systems showing some features in common with humor NUM like or the paradigm description language but they do n t have NUM the meta dictionary shown in the example compiles with humor s lexicon compiler without any changes
a more principled approach is to select features by actually adding them one by one into the me model della however using this approach is very time consuming and we decided on the mi approach for the sake of speed
in this paper we focus on the theory of using sharedplans to model intentional structure however the theory has also been implemented in a
vt extends and formalizes the relation between discourse structure and reference
details of the discourse annotation process are given in
italian lexical database knight pangloss ontology and klavans bilingual lexicon axe some responses to this need
to deal with this problem we must incorporate the notion of intentional structure and focus space structure
an experiment of recognizing coherence relations of te linkage were done for NUM sentences which were randomly extracted from edr
indirectly addresses the second aspect by taking into account scoping relations and consequences for pronominal reference
null 48a represents a change hack to the time of the proceedings note the discourse deictic this
for further details see di
is perhaps the most widely used electronic dictionary of english and serves as the lexicon for a rarity of different nlp applications including information retrieval ir word sense disambignation wsd and m hine transla tion mt
kappa is a better measurement of agreement than raw percentage because it factors out the level of agreement which would be reached by random annotators using the same distribution of categories as the real coders
general frameworks of text structure and argumentation theoretical framework for general argumentation and rhetorical structure theory are theoretically applicable to many different kinds of text types
our reproducibility and stability results are in the describes as giving marginally significant results for reasonable size data sets when correlating two coded variables which would show a clear correlation if there were prefectly agreement
for the extraction of protocol relevant data we utilize a part of the diakon module namely the dialogue module alexandersson a hybrid component consisting of a dialogue memory a statistical component and a plan processor
thus further evidence is given to support
one is designed for our japanese grammar and the algorithm is a parallel version of the cky
this allows us to compute the conditional probability as follows
discourse relations are organized into three major classes the first class includes logical or strongly semantic relationships where one sentence is a logical consequence or contradiction of another the second class consists of sequential relationships where two semantically independent sentences are juxtaposed the third class includes elaborationtype relationships where one of the sentences is semantically subordinate to the other
to find out effects of the committee based sampling method cbs we ran the c4 NUM release NUM decision tree algorithm with cbs turned on and and measured the performance by the NUM fold cross validation in which the corpus is divided evenly into NUM blocks of data and NUM blocks are used for training and the remaining one block is held out for testing
apart from a few limited tests performed by programmers of conversation the turing test was
in inultimodal dialogues it is possible to refer to objects which have not been previously introduced but are accessible by virtue of being part of the visual situation examples are objects on the screen in the case of multimodal applications and references to landmarks in the map in the maptask corpus
the dri did come up with a proposal concerning the dialogue act level although there have been serious disagreements concerning the usefulness of such a standard for this level since it s not clear that it s possible to come up with a domain independent definition of dialogue acts
drama also allows annotators to encode certain types of eridoing these are anaphoric expressions that denote objects that have not yet been introduced in the discourse but that are related to an entity already introduced in the text by relations other than identity an example is the indicators in NUM john has bought a new car
we previously classified noun phrases by referential property into the following three types
smeaton tried to expand the queries of the trec NUM collection with various strategies of weighting expansion terms along with manual and automatic word sense disambiguation techniques
roukos and use structure based language models in the context of speech applications
i the idea of discourse grammars as a means to handle dialogue situations is for instance presented in
the grammar of xtag has been used to parse sentences from atis ibm manual and
the production of professional abstracts has long been object of
this suggests applications to the extraction of translation pairs from aligned bilingual corpora where the system input would be made up of aligned strings generally sentences in the two languages
another project le eagles also has the goal to provide preliminary guidelines for the representation or annotation of dialogue resources for language engineering
the expert should then communicate that information to
the intentional structure of the discourse comprised of discourse segment purposes and their interrelationships plays a central role in this process
sorin sorin has shown that prosodic phrase breaks in french tend to correspond with just cw fw junctions
NUM another distinction between our work relates to step NUM of the algorithm in figure NUM and the use of constraints
NUM g has a recipe for o NUM the terms data structure view of plans and mental phenomenon view of plans were
the generation server is based on erli s alethgen toolbox which has already been used for generating texts in particular for producing correspondence for a leading french mail order company
null while the problem for the majority of constituency based approaches is how to accommodate the conjunction in the phrase structure representation and how to deal with phrasally incomplete conjuncts in a dependency grammar the ia conjunct is a component part of a coordinate
a second problem with the classification schemes we have discussed was raised by fraurud in her study of definite nps in a corpus of
for further discussion and for the proof of the order independence
neither the uniqueness nor the familiarity approach have yet succeeded in providing a satisfactory account of all uses of
at about the same time the pc kimmo program became widely
this algorithm follows the same strategy as the algorithm of
the data we use for our experiment consists of the tagged
two metrics were tentatively 6for discussion of further variations on raethod NUM see
for example computed agreement on a coarse segmentation level that was constructed on the top of finer segments by determining how well coders agreed on where the coarse segments started and for agreed starts by computing how coders agreed on where coarse segments ended
to learn which words behave similarly used the clustering algorithm of to build a hierarchical classification tree
found that a class based language model results in a perplexity improvement for the lob corpus from NUM for a word based bigram model to NUM for a class based bigram model
to determine the word classes one can use the algorithm of which finds the classes that give high mutual information between the classes of adjacent words
to train the grammar we follow the inside outside re estimation algorithm described by
we restrict the test to senses within a single part of speech to focus the work on the harder part of the disambiguation problem the accuracy of simple stochastic part of speech taggers such as suggests that distinguishing among senses with different parts of speech can readily be accomplished
one such technique is local global matching where the similarity of a document with a query depends not only on the words occurring in the entire document but also on the existence of smaller lexical units such as sentences that exhibit particularly close matches with the query
in future work we plan to choose between the reparandum of alternative speech repairs as allowed by the
the goal of speech recognition is to find the most probable sequence of words i v given the acoustic
we used pairwise term similarity values that were compiled by dekang lin using a similarity measure based on information theoretical considerations from co occurrence data in a large corpus of news data available for download from http www cs umanitoba ca lindek
bear dowding proposed that multiple information sources need to be combined in order to detect and correct speech repairs
the attachment estimation uses a procedure described in when multiple left attachment possibilities exist and four simple rules when no or only one left attachment possibility exists
for example in an early experiment demonstrated how the interpretations of familiar unambiguous words vary with context
by this we mean the kind of non recursive simplifications of the np and vp that in the literature go by names such as noun verb groups
rais ghasem has shown how a concept can evolve i.e. acquires new properties from such patterns as it appears in various contexts
while pcfg models do not perform as well as models that are sensitive to a wider range their simplicity makes them straightforward to analyze both theoretically and empirically
in spite of this limitation these alignments cover the vast majority of situations encountered in real life texts at least at the level of sentences
in particular molecular biologists are concerned with relating sequences of nucleotides in dna or rna molecules and of amino acids in proteins
for a non word correction candidates are retrieved from the dictionary by approximate string match techniques using context independent word distance measures such as edit distance and ngram distance
arg mwax p w x arg mwax p x w p w NUM the maximization search can be efficiently implemented by using the viterbi like dynamic programing procedure described
recently the first problem was solved by selecting the most likely word sequence from all combinations of exactly and approximately matched words using a viterbi like word segmentation algorithm and a statistical language model considering unknown words and
recently statistical language models and feature based method have been used for context sensitive spelling correction where errors are corrected considering the context in which the error occurs
show in a theoretical framework that unlabeled data can indeed be used to improve classification although it is exponentially less valuable than labeled data
in related work teich firzlaff present an implementation of kunze s theory of semantic emphasis cf
hovy used a similar approach but characterised style in such an informal way that its relation to architectural aspects was compromised in particular he could not ensure that he was not missing important relations between style and generator decisions s
we give a much simpler undecidability proof of the emptiness problem using a reduction to the emptiness problem of the intersection of arbitrary context free languages a reduction that used to show the undecidability of ambiguity preserving generation
a semantics is commutative if g1 ug2 g g2
moreover a reduction to hilbert s tenth problem was also to show the undecidability of the emptiness problem of lexical functional languages a result that was later using a reduction to post s correspondence problem
for example picking one among several equivalent or nearly equivalent constructions is a form of lexical choice e.g. the utah jazz handed the boston celtics a de fear vs the utah jazz defeated the boston celtics
in this paper we are using the clustering method used in barri to present our view on redundancy and disambiguation
the rules that govern the combination of ha with nominals are simple when the article is viewed as an i ha attaches to words not to phrases ii it attaches only to nominals and to all kinds of nominals iii it only combines with indefinite words
the training of our probabilistic cfg proceeds in three steps i unlexicalized training with the supar parser ii bootstrapping a lexicalized model from the trained unlexicalized one with the ultra parser and finally iii lexicalized training with the hypar
despite our use of a manually developed grammar that does not have to be pruned of superfluous rules like an automatically generated grammar on heldout data iteration cross entropy the lexicalized model is notably better when preceded by unlexicalized training see also for related observations
we believe our current grammar of german could be extended to a robust free text chunk phrase grammar in the style of the english grammar of with about a month s work and to a free text grammar treating verb second clauses and additional complementation structures notably extraposed clausal complements with about one year of additional grammar development and experiment
several improvements to our algorithm are planned the most important one being the implementation of pruning methods
de marcken explores unsupervised lexical acquisition from enghsh spoken and written corpora and from a chinese written corpus
wolff attempts to infer word boundaries from artificially generated natural language sentences heavily relying on the co occurrence frequency of adjacent characters
the actual implementation of the weighted finitestate transducer by can be taken as an evidence that the hypothesis of one tokenization per source has already in practical use
this strategy rivals all proposals with directly comparable performance reports in the literature including NUM the representative one by which has the tokenization accuracy of NUM NUM
the linguistic object here is a critical fragment i.e. the one in between two adjacent critical points or unambiguous but not an arbitrary sentence segment
there has also been recent similar
its completeness has been checked using wahrig deutsches worterbuch a standard dictionary of
in previous literature on local focusing grosz brennan researchers used a small number of constructed texts to justify aspects of their focusing frameworks and to assess and compare focusing frameworks
on the other hand it may be the case that for this type of complex sentence the sentence should be treated as a single unit of processing with elements of one of the clauses dominating did address the issue of multiple subjects but did not address the general problem of developing a methodology for determining how a focusing framework should handle complex sentences
the appropriate movement and marking of local focus and the appropriate choice of the form of a noun phrase np based on local focus information are considered to contribute to the local coherence exhibited by discourse grosz joshi and others
as our claim that aspectual classification might play a role in the interpretation of pronouns in a subsequent sentence is distinct from the hypotheses of other researchers about the role of tense and aspect in pronoun interpretation
those that do not practice filtering include decision tree models that consider all possible combinations of potential anaphora and referents
wordnet has been used in numerous natural language processing such as part of speech tagging segond et al NUM word sense text categorization information extraction and so on with considerable success
reichman and indicate that discourse segmentation has an effect on the linguistic realization of referring expressions
literature on automated essay scoring shows that reasonably high agreement can be achieved between a machine score and a human rater score simply by doing analyses based on the number of words in an essay
cornell buckley singhal used the relevant and non relevant documents for investigations of rocchio feedback algorithms including more complex processes of expansion and weighting
ge corporate r d rutgers university strzalkowski lin used automatically generated summaries of the top NUM documents retrieved as sources of manuallyselected terms and phrases
the multext east lexicons and msds are fully described in tufts ide
clearly NUM for example recent work in linguistics shows that agreement with a theory s predictions may be a matter of how well the actual behavior distributes around the predicted behavior rather than an all or nothing affair bard
more recent work demonstrates how to use deduction engines for parsing
assuming that the global focus is involved in these cases instead of complicating the local focus centering theory is consistent with the little available psychological evidence e.g. with the resuits of who observed a slowdown in reading times for the sentence containing the pronoun when the antecedent is not in the same or the previous sentence implying that long distance pronominal anaphora are handled differently
a point worth keeping in mind throughout the following discussion is that although the concept o of c8 centerm theory s name for the current most salient entity was originally introduced as roughly corresponding to sidner s concept of discourse focus in fact it is not clear that the two concepts are capturing the same intuitions
first of all g s propose a distinction between two components of the attentional state the global focus structured as a stack of focus spaces and accessed to interpret definite descriptions and the lo cal focus consisting of the information preferentially used to interpret pronouns in addition they adopt centering theory as a theory of the local focus
in a corpus analysis done in connection with we found that NUM out of NUM inferential descriptions were of this type in the sole corpus in which NUM out of NUM bridging descriptions behave this way
the component of the theory that deals with pronominal reference centering theory only accounts for cases in which the antecedent of a pronoun is introduced by the previous sentence cases such as NUM have to be handled by different mechanisms
for example the resolution of anaphor procedure rap i itroduced in combines syntactic information with agreement and salience constraints
null such an approach is in line which argues that the repeated material in an soe is an anaphor resolving to its source counterpart
using the extension of the late closure only the as a whole interpretation is possible
it is widely agreed that focus can affect the truth conditions of a sentence NUM the following examples illustrate this where upper letters indicate prosodic prominence and thereby focus
presents a general theory of parallelism and shows that it provides both a fine grained analysis of the interaction between vp ellipsis and pronominal anaphora and a general account of sloppy identity
we believe it will be possible to translate this representation into a udrs or other similar representations for ambiguous sentences
it is important for the analysis of adjectives to consider what its head noun denotes in the
there is as yet no easy way of obtaining information from large corpora on the relative frequency of complementation patterns
the minimality conditions in step NUM of construction NUM are in keeping with the idea of minimality elsewhere in tag for
in a practical application it solves problems in one such formalism s tag when used for paraphrase or translation as
the subcorpora can be saved as binary files for further processing in cqp or xkwic an interactive corpus and as text files
the categories we are using are roughly based on those used in the comlex syntactic dictionary
we have and its main problem the lack of formality
this paper is an extension of our previous work mandala et in which we ddid not consider the effects of using roget s thesaurus as one piece of evidence for expansion and used the tanimoto coefficient as similarity coefficient instead of mutual information
computing lexical word sense and so on but the results have not been very successful
words appearing in similax grammatical contexts are assumed to be similar and therefore classified into the same
planning is divided into task and dialogue the task manager tm produces plan recipes in regard to a particular application and the current plan while the dialogue manager dm plans the system s communicative actions
dependency based statistical language modeling and analysis have also become quite popular in statistical natural language processing chelba
the speakers turns are orga ised into information units each unit has its information focus marked with a nuclear tone and usually the word with a nuclear tone occurs at the end of the unit
see for example
as an altemative technique we used a monte carlo to compute the density of k the fraction of real documents p hi pi i NUM we then used this density to provide a final estimate and a corresponding credibility interval
this type of generation provides an interesting challenge to nlg systems in genera since it not only requires flexible focus shifting but also that the communicative principles governing associative chains are spelled out
since content planning and realisation are theoretically parallel processes de the realiser may thus start saying something immediately after newinfo has been decided and produce temporizers uhmm errr while waiting for the next piece of information from the planner
based on previous work in this field a system will be developed to process the output of an asr device
quote figures that work out at NUM NUM for major pauses NUM NUM for minor ones or NUM NUM taken together
this approach is derived from earlier work in a related field in which a partial parser has been developed
for example galaxy of news retrieves sets of information related to one another by adopting a stochastic method to produce a hierarchy of keywords and it presents the results of the search visually i.e.
a more detailed description of geppetto is contained in
our prototype system can extract the stream of discussion as an rt and it can indicate the article region where the same topic is discussed by identifying the changing topic
we used the following criterion for topic changing articles when articles the system identifies are the same as the target article or adjacent to a target article the system is judged to be correct
as a test set a set of NUM g p tuples was randomly extracted from the edict english japanese dictionary NUM and shinmeikal japanese and each tuple annotated with its alignment for evaluation purposes
within the modular system architecture the dialogue and discourse processing is situated in between the components for semantic construction gamb and semantic based transfer
presentor uses rich presentation plans or exemplars which can be used to specify the presentation at different levels of abstraction rhetorical conceptual syntactic and surface form and which can be used for deep or shallow generation
the main characteristics of a deep syntactic structure inspired in this form by i mel uk s meaning text theory mel are the following the dsynts is an unordered dependency tree with labeled nodes and labeled arcs
presentor has been used with success in different domains including object model description weather forecasting and system requirements summarization
in addition to the computational work ratnaparkhi reynar performed a study with three human subjects all experienced treebank annotators who were given a small random sample of the test sentences either as four tuples or as full sentences and who had to give the same binary decision
the data consist of four tuples of words extracted from the wall street journal treebank marcus santorini by a group at ibm ratnaparkhi reynar NUM they took all sentences that contained the pattern vp np pp and extracted the head words from the constituents yielding a v n1 p n2 pattern
using a measure of the correctness of the classification of a word in lexical space with respect to a linguistic categorization see we found that pca can reduce the dimensionality from NUM to as few as NUM dimensions with virtually no loss and sometimes even an improvement of the quality of the organization
the other methods for which results have been reported on this dataset include decision trees maximum entropy ratnaparkhi reynar and error driven transformation based learning NUM which were clearly outperformed by both ib1 and ibi ig even though e.g.
in addition agents have commitments towards other agents abilities to act represented by intentions that int th and mutual beliefs about others capabilities and NUM the details of this process differ significantly from that described in a previous paper lochbaum
on the assumption that the designer of a scheme for dialogues may be interested in annotating both anaphoric and coreferential information we addressed the problem of the difference between the two types of annotation by adopting a position analogous to that taken in whereby coreference information is expressed in terms of the same semantic relations used to annotate anaphoric information
very similar to brill s lexical we also have included features to capture collocational information
even though some approaches produce acceptable abstracts for specific tasks it is generally agreed that the problem of coherent selection and expression of information in automatic abstracting
to establish coreference between proper names named entities are extracted from the document along with coreference relations using sra s a muc NUM fielded system
we regarded cohesive clusters of the meaningful bigrams as n gram collocations on the assumption that members in a collocation have a high degree of
alternatively all the models generated during search can be considered and the one with the highest accuracy on a held out portion of the training data can be selected as the final model kayaalp wiebe
a product of marginal distributions is a full factorization of a joint distribution if the former is derived from the latter by factorization steps such as that between equations NUM and NUM and an independence statement corresponding to every pair of non adjacent vertices in the dependency graph of x is applied exactly once to factorize the joint distribution into the product of marginal NUM
the same types of features were used in each model the part of speech tags one place to the left and right of the ambiguous word the part of speech tags two places to the left and right of the word the part of speech tag of the word and a collocation variable for each sense of the word whose representation is per class binary as presented in wiebe bruce
NUM naive bayes has been shown to be competitive with state of the art classifiers and has proven remarkably successful on many ai and nlp applications see for example leacock towell friedman geiger langley iba
this grammar provides an analysis for simple and complex verb second verb first and verb last sentences with scrambling in the mittelfeld extraposition phenomena whmovement and topicalization integrated verb first parentheticals and an interface to an illocution theory as well as the three kinds of infinitive constructions nominal phrases and adverbials
an example again from is shown below along with the proportion of subjects who judged that it was grammatically acceptable for the expressions in bold face to refer to the same person
definite nps and quantified nps NUM this pattern is also supported by on line measures of reading time which show that under certain conditions sentences with repeated names are read more slowly than matched sentences with pronouns similar patterns of this reading elevation are observed within sentences and between sentences gordon hendrick
research on the success of algorithms for pronoun resolution shows that syntactic factors such as being a subject being a direct object and not being contained within another noun phrase contribute to the likelihood that an expression is the antecedent of a subsequent pronoun
it adapts the formalism provided by kamp discourse representation theory drt
the model uses fairly standard phonological features based on those
for uniformity the algorithms are implemented m prolog and the grammars are implemented in
the first stage in constructing our hierarchy is to build an unlabeled hierarchy of nouns using bottom up clustering methods see e.g.
in this view several proposals tend to use statistical knowledge free methods possibly in combination with the use of existing machine readable dictionaries see e.g. which also contains a survey of related proposals pages NUM NUM
there is currently much interest in bringing together the tradition of categorial grammar and especially the lambek with the more recent paradigm of linear to which it has strong ties
we propose that aspectual classification might affect pronoun interpretation within a
we explored the role of now in centering
the inference program uses the minimum message length mml principle to measure the significance of these functions
ch NUM NUM argued that the notion word a linear unit in a speech chain does not belong to syntactic description at all
one of the enduring problems in developing high quality text to speech system is accurate grapheme to phoneme conversion
we implemented our parser and grammar in lilfes s a featurestructure description language developed by our group
this claim was later taken as granted to apply to any dependency grammar and the first often cited attestation of this apparently false claim
most previous efforts in generating intelligent multimedia presentations have focused on coordinating natural language and graphical depictions of real world devices e.g. military radios and coffee makers for generating instructions about their repair or proper use
moreover incorporating disjunctive information into internal representation makes parsing more
research has also focused on issues regarding the generation of coordinated presentations in applications where the graphics are familiar or possess an obvious mapping between the data set and a graphical image e.g. weather and network diagrams
as the model evaluation criterion during the model search from general to specific ones we employ the description length of the model and guide the search process so as to minimize the description
to our knowledge there are only two focus based pronoun resolution algorithms that are specified in enough detail to work on unrestricted naturally occurring text using the definition of utterance
the acquisition and filtering process is
one type of parser that we believe to be particularly well suited to this type of grammar is the head corner parser introduced based on one of the parsing strategies
however it is difficult to obtain similar improvements in heterogeneous collections where the lexical aids necessarily contain multiple senses of words
in which linear order constraints are taken to apply to domains distinct from the local trees formed by syntactic combination the nonconcatenative shuffle relation is the basic operation by which these word order domains are formed
dowty and decisively questioned the coherence of the class of achievement verbs arguing that not all of them are non durative
we therefore have a direct explanation observation that in the acquisition of fixed word order languages such as english word order errors are trifingly few
many variants and generalizations of this scheme are studied in and their thorough mathematical treatments can be found in narendra and
comment the algorithm is the linear rewardpenalty lr p scheme one of the earliest and most extensively studied stochastic algorithms in the psychology of learning
introduces a parse forest semiring similar to our derivation forest semiring in that it encodes a parse forest succinctly
in the relationship between profer s compilation process and that of both pereira fsas and cmu s phoenix system has been described
there have been a number of attempts to combine paradigmatic and syntagmatic similarity strategies e.g.
but there are languages like turkish inkelas NUM NUM where certain morphemes resist otherwise regular final devoicing and this descriptive possibility thus seems to 29be well motivated
foot root and pattern
the utterances used in the design and analysis of the decision tree classifiers were drawn from approximately NUM hours of user interactions in a field trial of the sun microsystems speechacts system
the tra null ditional alignment probabilities depend on absolute positions and do not take that into account as has already been noted by
in analyzing and identifying self repairs and found that the most effective methods relied on identifying shared textual regions between the reparandum and the repair
two possible evaluation strategies for om grammars are considered the global evaluation and a simple strategy of local constraint evaluation
numerous studies of among others trabasso and suggest that the various types of relations differ not only along the dimension of cognitive complexity but also along the dimension of cognitive relevance
there has been a variety of definitions for coherence relations see for a survey
the current dictionaries contain NUM roots each one hand coded to indicate the subset of patterns with which it legally
for a different formalization of this and other models proposed by mccarthy but using techniques that go beyond finite state power
the tacitus system uses similar methods for dealing with metonymy and for interpreting noun noun components which are considered special cases of reference resolution that approach which is also described in treats interpretation as a uniform abduction process to find the best explanation for the observables
let us start with two contrastive sentences NUM and NUM taken from and respectively an earlier version of the subsequent analysis is NUM the ham sandwich is waiting for his check
formally this is expressed by means of the comonsense entailment ce
our implementation of the compilation algorithm is part of a genera set of grammar tools the grm currently used in speech processing projects at at t labs
i will employ a first order tree to define an underspecifled sdrt in the following sections
a wd may consist of two types of disjunctive representation local or complex disjunction in 2in this section and in the paper we refer to mpro as the analysis
the formula for calculating the entropy of a sequence is given in
the variation between underlying y and the surface ie can be defined in terms of two level rules or replace rules which partially mimic traditional rewrite rules in their superficial syntax
describe their method of automatically capturing pause information for the prosice corpus
first an algorithm that selects the appropriate parse by counting the numbers of errors flagged in each parse and selecting that which has the least number oferrors is inadequate
here we use q learning to illustrate the
there is an inherent trade off between the power and generality of a notation and there are important issues for example based on social factors or domain requirements for which syndetic models are either inappropriate or inadequate
the system we fielded for muc NUM makes extensive use calls internal phrasal and external contextual evidence in named entity recognition
the best path can be efficiently found with the viterbi which runs in time linear to the length of the word sequence
a graph is available to directly construct fsts
we can form a vector space model of a word in terms of its context word indices similar to the vector space model of a text in terms of its constituent word indices
in the years since the appearance of the first papers on using statistical models for bilingual lexicon compilation and machine translation large amount of human effort and time has been invested in collecting parallel corpora of translated texts
among the variants of idf we choose the following representation maxn idf log l ni where maxn the maximum frequency of any word in the corpus ni the total number of occurrences of word i in the corpus the idf of virus is NUM NUM and that of hong kong is NUM NUM in the english text
the system is distributed consisting of a series of agents figure NUM which communicate through a shared blackboard
all of these classifiers are implemented in the timbl package
among these proposes that the association between a word and its close collocate is preserved in any language and suggests that the associations between a word and many seed words are also preserved in another language
utilize a similar relation grammar formalism in which a sentence consists of a multiset of objects and relations among them
raw sentences are supplied as input and are processed using a snow based pos tagger roth and first
attribute elimination can be seen as a radical case of attribute weighting where attributes are weighted on a binary scale as either relevant or not more fine grained methods of attribute weighting take information theoretic notions ifito account such as information gain ratio
perhaps this was not observed earlier since studied only base nps most of which are short
moreover the favorite does not identify the relation itself via the instantiation of the event variable for the cases of event reading nor the role that is discharged by the deverbal for theresult reading as
distinguishes between event nominals that express an event or a process whose existence is entailed and restdt nominals that name denote the output of the event or an entity related to it but do not entail the existence of the corresponding event
i have developed the idea that in addition to the factor of accessibifity of candidate referents there is another important factor which affects the bearer s choice of referent namely accessibifity of contextual assumptions
ated focus based algorithm for the resolution of pronominal anaphora
if the latter case occurs the computer program is said to be exhibiting
describe a technique for text summarization based on lexical chains
we can measure feature value agreement by viewing the featme assignment task as a kind of classification task and then computing kappa a which measures how well the coders a g l compared to their random ejcpected
finite state grammar based approaches to parsing are exemplified by the parsing systems and
since there is only one supertag for each word assuming there is no global ambiguity when the parse is complete an ltag parser schabes needs to search a large space of supertags to select the right one for each word before combining them for the parse of a sentence
thus we can estimate the parameters from the data without the need for an iterative fitting procedure as used in nlp maximum entropy modeling berger della pietra
an approach that is closely related to supertagging is the reductionist approach to parsing that is being carried out under the constraint grammar framework
as a baseline we used without expansion
i the procedure new cat s is almost the same as in
declarative phonology is just such a constraint based framework that dispenses with violability and requires a monostratal conception of phonological grammar as compared to the multi level approaches discussed above
identifying proofs of a proposition with programs of the corresponding type so that t a can be read as t is a proof of proposition a or equivalently t is a program of type a disambiguation may take the form of type coercion
a sufficient condition for proper assignment is established by who prove that production probabilities estimated by the maximum likelihood ml estimation procedure or relative frequency estimation procedure as it is called in computational linguistics always impose proper pcfg distributions
variable length n gram models one of which is described in have been used instead
we computed significance using the nonparametric significance test
it is defined on the basis of salton s vector space
mckeown et al reported a method for summarizing news articles
figure NUM from shows how bug1 can easily be used
as illustrated in figure NUM word correspondences for speech repairs tend to exhibit a cross serial dependency in other words if we have a correspondence between wj in the reparandum and wk in the alteration any correspondence with a word in the alteration after wk will be to a word that is after wj
they were then NUM for a more comprehensive review of the historical involvement of natural language parsing in language modelling
this knowledge is represented in axiomatic form using the notation proposed in and previously implemented in tacitus
the analysis of lone involves somewhat different relations
figures NUM and NUM contain the sample dialogue used by
null however despite promising results when measuring mutual information gain the baseline model combined only with extrasentential tag triggers reduced perplexity by just a modest NUM NUM
scaniasven a list of NUM NUM swedish english word alignments derived from the swedish english bi texts in the scania95 by measuring lcsr scores NUM with an estimated precision of about NUM NUM
this is especially so for a large semantic and syntactic tagset such as the roughly NUM tag atr general english tagset
NUM there are plans and there are plans
we compared the result with the result of our previous experiment
present an algorithm to generate the root and the pattern of a given arabic word
some connections between the lambek calculus and group structure have long been known and linear logic itself has some aspects strongly reminiscent of groups the producer consumer duality of a formula a with its linear negation aa but no serious attempt has been made so far to base a theory of linguistic description solely on group structure
a discourse is composed of discourse segments much as a sentence is composed of constituent phrases
one active research area concerns the design of non commutative versions of linear which can be sensitive to word order while retaining the hypothetical reasoning capabilities of standard commutative linear logic that make it so well adapted to handling such phenomena as quantifier scoping
in particular one strand of research has examined the psychological plausibility of grosz joshi centering theory
doted trees used for example are equivalent to the states of these automata
a more recent unsupervised approach is described in
in fact found that discourse markers tend to occur at the beginning of intonational phrases while sentential usages tend to occur midphrase
the conexor np n ame was used to obtain word lemmas
tree manifolds are a generalization to arbitrary dimensions of gorn s tree
its prototype carries out a morphological analysis of the sentence in which the selected word occurs and a stochastic disambiguation of the word class information
testing the parser against this corpus produced generally lower results with an overall recall precision and f score of NUM
except for the object precision score of NUM in both finders have grammatical relation recall and precision scores in the 80s
aspectual classification is necessary for several medical report processing tasks since these reports describe events and states that progress over time
parse into a semantic representation is according to charniak p NUM the most important task to be tackled now
combined an mrd and a corpus in a bootstrapping process
individual intentions at a lower level especially those relating to communication management rather than task are expected to be captured within the dialogue act level of the dri coding scheme allen
a weaker reliability metric on the pooled data from nine coders therefore would provide a reliable majority coding on this dialogue see for discussion of how reliability is computed for pooled coding data
randomization tests for paired sample data were performed to assess the significance of the difference between the labeled precision and recall scores for the output of the id pcfg and the
NUM other such correspondences between particular expressions of the textual metalanguage metasentences and rst relations have been suggested in
in the this is a compilation based treatment of bi directional processing
such reversibility is a common if seldom deployed idea in computational linguistics
the problem of deciding whether to stop generalizing at bird and bee or generalizing further to animal has been addressed by a number of authors velardi
this technique measures affinity distance between nouns
for this type of ambiguity we must briefly introduce the idea of a relation hierarchy which is described and justified in more details in
consequently themselves merely took the apparent regularity as a special case and focused on the development of localcontext oriented disambiguation rules
it may therefore be defined as a piece of information that has been derived t om a dynamically evolving information flow before it is converted into a stable form e.g.
provided a proof for patr style grammars using a reduction to post s correspondence problem
for unification based approaches like lfg patr or hpsg this problem turns out to be a formal problem of the underlying grammar formalism when the mapping between strings and semantic representations is defined by the grammar
the possibility of strict definition of each sense of a polysemous word and the possibility of unambiguous assignment of a given sense in a given situation are in themselves nontrivial issues
the proposed research is based on a clustering method developed by barri which performs a gathering of related information about a particular topic
there are some similarities between our work and the work of koller mcallester who create a general formalism for handling stochastic programs that makes it easy to compute inside and outside probabilities
in c4 NUM programs a larger value of confidence means weaker pruning and NUM is connnonly used in various
because these grammars comprise only nonterminal and part of speech tag symbols their performances were not enough to be used in practical
after all sentences in the edr corpus were word segmented and part of speech tagged they were then chunked into a sequence of bunsetsu
initially we postulate four such relations which are necessary to handle indirect co reference relations also called bridging relations attribute of
bobrow and introduced statistical agenda based parsing techniques
captures is from the article
it supports a wide range of noninteraction assumptions and the use of maximum likelihood parameter estimates bishop
based on the definitions and assumptions described in the previous section NUM underspecified semantic classes are induced from wordnet by the following steps
this assumption is in accord with lexical rules where meaning extension is expressed by if then implication rules
in order to verify this assumption we analyzed paraphrasing patterns through themes of our training corpus derived from the topic detection and tracking corpus
in this framework use generation techniques to highlight changes over time across input articles about the same event
multilingual lexicons are usually monolingual lexicons connected via translation links tlinks whereas truly multilingual lexicons as defined by involve n NUM NUM hierarchies thus involving an additional abstract hierarchy containing information shared by two or more languages
nominator a module which identifies proper names developed at the ibm tj watson research categorizes them and links expressions in the same document which refer to the same entity successfully exploited this property of documents
in addition to the which contains the referents of nps available for anaphoric reference our model includes these are preferences and not strict rules because some l incompatible contexts are compatible with nps denoting abstract objects e.g. the story it is true
many statistical translation models try to model word toword correspondences between source and target words
NUM how to resolve discourse deictic anaphora we now turn to our method of anaphora resolution which extends the algorithm in order to be able to account for discourse deictic anaphora as well as individual anaphora
sw3241 whilst there have been attempts to classify abstract objects and the rules governing anaphoric reference to there have been no exhaustive empirical studies using actual resolution algorithms
instead of assuming that all levels of abstract objects are introduced to the discourse model by the sentence that makes them available it has been suggested that anaphoric discourse deictic reference involves referent
certain predicates notably verbs of propositional attitude require one of their arguments to have a referent whose meaning is correlated with sentences e.g. is true assume referred to as sc bias verbs in and elsewhere
we have model for the resolution of individual anaphora as basis because it avoids the problems encountered by byron stent who also do not present data on the resolution of pronouns in dialogues and do not mention abstract object anaphora
traum analyzed collaborative task oriented dialogues and developed a theory of conversational acts that models conversation using actions at four different chu carroll and carberry response generation in planning dialogues levels turn taking acts grounding acts core speech acts and argumentation acts
these dialogues are the trains NUM dialogues gross a set of air travel reservation and a set of collaborative negotiation dialogues on movie
rosetta NUM describes how separable verbs are treated
brants and skut NUM automation of treebank annotation thorsten brants automation of treebank annotation
a second reason was that we intended to use computer simulations of the classification task to supplement the results of our experiments and we needed a parsed corpus for this purpose the articles we chose were all part of the penn treebank marcus
among the more developed semantic analyses some identify uniqueness as the defining property of whereas others take familiarity as the basis for
we have performed experiments using all three types of technique which we describe below NUM x the work reported on here also concerns learning merging strategies in support of the scenario template task of muc NUM as described in section NUM while we are unaware of any other reported research on this task other work has addressed other muc style tasks
passonneau argues for the use of the principles of information adequacy and economy
to this end a list of NUM morphophonemic words and their hyphenation properties was extracted from the celex lexical database
previous work showed that part of speech tags can play an important role in the disambiguation of word senses
in a recent workshop on semantic the difficulty of providing comprehensible guidelines for semantic annotators in order to avoid disagreement and inconsistencies was highlighted
as a consequence we have redefined rule NUM of the centering constraints grosz NUM appropriately
the second measurement is tf idf term frequency times inverse document frequency which has been widely used to quantify word importance in information retrieval tasks
even the propositional tensor fragment is np
1as themselves observe hou also yields other linguistically invalid solutions
to treat the specific interpretation the system has to perform the concept conversion shown in figure NUM
the tag yield can then be applied to these derivation trees to get derived trees
syntactic paraphrase can also be described with dras forthcoming
abney is one of the first who proposed to split up parsing into several cascades
in classification and regression tree cart was used to produce a decision tree to predict the location of prosodic phrase boundaries yielding a high accuracy around NUM similar methods were also employed in predicting pitch accent for tts
such methods were presented in
the set comprises the following tasks content determination rhetorical structuring lexicalisation intra and inter sentential ordering referring expression generation aggregation segmentation and linguistic realisation for an explanation about those task see
tfs also offered type constraints and relations and to our knowledge was the first working typed feature systems
some class based methods associate each word with a single class without considcring the other words in the co occurrence
this feature distinguishes collaborative negotiation from noncollaborative negotiation such as
while some ideas of existing hebrew grammars in particular are incorporated into the work described here the starting point is new we present an account of several aspects of the hebrew noun phrase aligned with the general principles of hpsg
the most important origin of this diversity is that explanation dialogue is a cooperative process
third mh exhibits also eases of clitic doubled where a genitive pronoun cliticizes onto the head noun and must agree with a doubled possessive on number gender and person
nevertheless most existing analyses of mh noun phrases apply the dph with the definite article as the d
the weight of the original query terms are the weighting factors of those similarities
it is itself a correction through personal communication of the formula in which follows on from work in numerical taxonomy that apljlied the mml principle to derive information me ures for classification
as in the method of internal reconstruction if we assume that the complexity of a language increases with time due to the presence of residual p NUM NUM the pfsa derived for the more distant language will have a greater complexity than the other
resnik selected all pairs of classes corresponding to the head of a prepositional phrase and weighted them to bias the computation of the association in favor of higher frequency co occurrences which he considered more reliable
NUM they can be realisedby linguistic phrases analogously to we say that u realizes d if u is a phrase for which d is a discourse referent in the context model
trec NUM had two additional groups working with the use of term co occurrance and proximity as alternative methods for ranking see braschler wechsler mateev mittendorf and nakajima takaki hirao
our topic tree is an organization of the domain knowledge in terms of topic types bearing resemblance to the topic tree of
in particular it has been argued that structural parts of parent documents such as introductions and conclusions are important in order to obtain the information for the topical sentence
originally focus trees were proposed by to trace foci in nl generation systems
the first type is exemplified by the ge group where the task was to ask users to pick out phrases and sentences from the retrieved documents to add to the query in hopes that this process could be imitated by automatic methods
in trec NUM several groups such as lexis nexis and mds used multiple stages of data fusion including merging results from different term weighting schemes various mixtures of documents and passages and different query expansion schemes
the proposed method can be incorporated into frameworks that utilize left to right parsing and a score for a substructure in fact it has been added to transfer driven machine translation tdmt which was proposed for efficient and robust spoken language
the corpus is tagged with speech acts using a surface pattern oriented speech act classification of and with topic types
dempster laird put the idea into a much more general setting and coined the chi and geman probabilistic context free grammars term em for expectation maximization
both process and outcome studies have provided incomplete evidence as to the effectiveness of therapy
in the first three rows the table also shows the average kappa statistics computed for each text in the corpus with respect to judges ability to agree on elementary discourse boundaries k and k and the average value of the corresponding z statistics zw and zu that were computed to test the significance of kappa p NUM
while we focused here on cfgs with real number weights which are especially relevant in speech recognition weighted cfgs can be defined more generally over an arbitrary semiring
this asymmetry has an analog in sentence structure main clauses tend to represent nuclei while subordinate clauses tend to represent satellites
the computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM words were not chosen by the authors but were randomly selected from a set of NUM words included in the training set for the senseval
in maximum entropy modeling as applied to nlp berger della pietra feature selection and model search are typically combined but the procedure differs from that described here
typed feature grammar constraints that are inexpensive to resolve are dealt with using the top down interpreter of the controll grammar development system which uses an advanced search function an advanced selection function and incorporates a coroutining mechanism which supports delayed interpretation
the lancaster was also designed for texts and in certain ways is more ambitious than any of the schemes discussed 3informal studies conducted in muc and by the ur1 confirm this
the framework described in this paper uses decomposable models a subclass of darroch because they offer many computational advantages while retaining a great deal of expressive power
the model that is developed discourse prominence theory dpt integrates and elaborates on three theoretical sources discourse representation theory drt centering theory and the binding
we have used the basic methods of experimental psychology to take a close look at the phenomena of coreference and disjoint reference involving full expressions names and descriptions that have been cited in support of principle c of the binding theory
in we account for these two important facts about coreference in fronted adjuncts that they enable backwards anaphora and that there is no reading time penalty for names compared to pronouns by considering the semantic function of adjuncts
points out possible solutions to this problem
the pattern of coreference that is observed with these three types of measures intuitive judgments reading time and frequency in a corpus is accounted for by a model that incorporates aspects of
further results on the judged acceptability of different configurations of referential expressions are consistent with the results of experiments that use reading time as ano online measure of language comprehension gordon gordon hendricl
the instructions for the core scheme include a fairly extensive discussion of which text constituents count as nps whichincorporates examples from muccs and drama as well as from
the highest possible value for k may be smaller for low frequency tags
to evaluate the case frames we used the same corpus and evaluation metrics as previous experiments with autoslog and so that we can draw comparisons between them
for nyu s official entry in the muc NUM evaluation mene took in the output of an enhanced version of the more traditional hand coded proteus named entity tagger which we entered in
if this value is less than one then the grammar is consistent NUM computing consistency can bypass the computation of the eigenvalues for a4 by using the following theorem by ger gorin see
c is a function which assigns each adjunction with a probability and denotes the set of parameters 1note that for cfgs it has been shown in s nchez that inside outside reestimation can be used to avoid inconsistency
the resulting grammar is then parsed using an earley style predictive chart algorithm which is adapted from
our work is closely related to that
in some sense the work presented here is consistent with passonneau s theory what we attempt to add is a genre dependent definition of discourse segment thread which is well defined and can be derived from 2this algorithm was later revised in m more adequately reflect human generated referring expressions and to be more computationally tractable
linguists would generally subscribe to all three requirements hence the need for a computational tool with such focus3 in this paper we briefly describe the mpd system details may be found in submitted and focus on some linguistic applications including componential analysis of kinship terms distinctive feature analysis in phonology language typology and discrimination of aphasic syndromes from coded texts in the childes database
on this basis we have explored adapting the dtg parsing approach of for use with the lambek calculus
to do this the recognition problem is cast as finding the most likely word sequence l g given the acoustic signal
proposed a domain specific ordering such as preferring a proposition with an animate subject to appear before a proposition with an inanimate subject
or another reading is possible from the match between verb c0hh sense NUM of write to communicate thoughts by writing and noun aft which gives spredicate argument structures verb object and subject verb relations in this experiment are extracted by syntactic pattern matching similar to the cascaded fufite state processing used in fastus hobbs
for the specific implementation described here and all the examples we will refer to an existing lexicalist english spanish mt system
in a similar strategy and a combination of manual disambiguation and very short documents image captions pioduced however an improvement of ir perforinance
in this paper we use a variant of the ir semcor collection to revise the results of the experiments by and cited above
a more recent system recognizes a large percentage of non anaphoric definite noun phrases nps during the coreference resolution process through the use of syntactic cues and case sensitive rules
we determined that changes in the deictic center of the not only must be part of the input to a sentence generator e.g. for appropriate tense generation but were also both well marked in the text and seemed to have an influence on anaphoric expression choice
for this definition we choose a span of text considered important in our previous work on anaphora and define a referring expression as ambiguous if there is a competing antecedent i.e. another discourse entity matching in number and gender mentioned in the previous sentence or to the ler of the referring expression in the current sentence
it describes an implemented system that integrates two robust systems sage an intelligent graphics presentation system and a natural language generator consisting of a text planner a microplanner implementing tactical decisions and a sentence realizer
a pronoun interpretation algorithm based on centering which relied on centering transition preferences was developed in using transition preferences in a pronoun generation rule would cover more cases of pronoun use than is covered by rule NUM but the application of such transition preferences also proved unhelpful in explaining pronoun patterns in our corpus
following we plan to investigate whether definite descriptions might best be viewed as boundary markers and whether other markers of discourse boundaries e.g. preposed adverbial phrases are found in places where our algorithm suggests a definite description because of a time change but a pronoun appear in the text
our method relies on classification method proposed and miller
the problem is that the nps generated in the captions are often possessive and have complex syntactic structures e.g. the selling price of the house the mark s horizontal position and centering theory is not yet clear on the determination of centers in complex syntactic structures such as possessives and subordinate clauses
c structure construction is based on a chart parser that allows the system to represent syntactic
unlike depictions of real world objects or processes e.g. radios coffee makers network and visualizations of scientific data e.g. weather medical images visualizations of abstract information lack an obvious physical analog
fect the accessibility of a referent where accessibility is intended in a broad sense to cover both topic accessibility and accessibility due to factors such as recency of mention
NUM our implementation of the head corner parser adapts parser to the controll environment
the probability of generating a verb noun collocation from partial subcategorization frames is simply estimated as the product of the probabilities the other type of the model evaluation criterion is the performance in the subcategorization preference test presented in in which the goodness of the model is measured according to how many of the positive examples can be judged as more appropriate than the negative examples
our solution is inspired by an hmm re estimation technique that works on pruned n best trellises
several mb modules have been developed in previous work such as a pos tagger a tjong kim and a grammatical relation gr
the training phase of the algorithm employs two previously successful techniques statistical parser our initial base np grammar is read from a treebank corpus then the grammar is improved by selecting rules with high benefit scores
for example in recent and kathol this research was sponsored in part by national science foundation grant sbr NUM and in part by a seed grant from the ohio state university office of research the opinions expressed here are solely those of the authors
the second heuristic merges june b into and june into
the prague dependency treebank pdt has been modeled after the penn treebank marcus et al NUM with one important exception following the praguian linguistic tradition the syntactic annotation is based on dependencies rather than phrase structures
our eventual goal is to develop a set of regular expressions that work on fiat tagged corpora instead of treebank parsed structures to allow us to gather information from larger corpora than have been done by the treebank
d bic workbench builds up an annotated tt h NUM
as an illustration the predicate argument structures of the agentive verb murder and the psychological verb fear p NUM to abstract away from language particular case systems and mapping of thematic roles to grammatical functions i assume the applicative for the definition of prominence
first assigned a chunk tag to each word in the sentence i for inside a chunk o for outside a chunk and type precision b tbr inside a chunk but tile preceding word is in another chunk
for arguments requiring a non canonical order we need type shifting and composition hence the third clause in NUM 3as suggested in morphological and syntactic composition can be distinguished by associating several attachment calculi with functors and arguments e.g. affixation concatenation clitics etc NUM
i follow also in the ordered representation of the pas NUM
pas is the sole level of representation in combinatory categorial grammar ccg
there is evidence for an s shape pattern in child language inter alia which if true suggests that a selectionist learning algorithm adopted here might indeed be what the child learner employs
this procedure inspired is composed of NUM steps NUM select manually a representative conceptual relation e.g. the hypernym relation
2asain this is lax to the notion of tmpomi center kameyama pa onean but with important differences for instance re crones time is an instant while the tempond is an interval
identification constraints can derive from syntactic semantic discourse and world mowledge
first differ1 note that the transformational approach is not restricted to ug based models for example brill is a corpus based model which successively revises a set of syntactic rules upon presentation of partially bracketed sentences
the following formulas describe approximations of two commonly used metrics mutual information i and the dice coefficient dice the proposed approaches to the generation of matching functions are based on the calculation of co occurrence statistics
table NUM the f i scores for the test set after training with their training data set
each item of these classes may evoke a different relation called interpretant depending on the item s syntactic and semantic properties and in general the properties of the item as a in nlca these interpretants are instantiations of the linguistic relations formalising the category of thirdness
null evaluations and assessments represent a subtype calls ascriptive sentences NUM
regrettably interest in empiricism with a number of significant events including chomsky s criticism of n grams in syntactic and minsky and papert s criticism of neural networks in pereeptrons
we have used the optimal experiment configurations that we had obtained from the fourth experiment series for processing the complete data set
many studies have been reported for compiling unification of prolog terms for example wam
the assessment phase goes beyond the current work in test scoring combining recognition of acoustic features such as the automatic spoken language assessment by telephone aslat or with aspects of the syntactic discourse and semantic factors as in e rater
the algorithm is very fast and it reaches the same performance as f NUM NUM NUM
we leave incorporating a more sophisticated response understanding model such as into our system for future work
the phrasal organization of natural languages is well known and has been described among many others
for a study of the advantages of winnow
as gerald salton has noted in the field of information retrieval to determine the meaning of words is not as important as to ascertain if the meaning of the terms within the detection need coincide or not with the meaning of the terms in each document
consonant spreading as in form ix and form xii and biliteral roots also use the morphophonemic x
this prototype grew into a
parsers and applications usually refer to grammars built around a core of dependency concepts but there is a great variety in the description of syntactic constraints from rules that are very similar to to individual binary relations on words or john likes beans
also a number of parsers have been developed for some including a and an object oriented parallel parsing method
both give algorithms for computing these prefix probabilities
the prototype source channel application in natural language is
as in the finite case this representation is equivalent to that of
in this section we survey other results that are described in more including examples of formalisms that can be parsed using item based descriptions and other uses for the technique of semiring parsing
gate is based on an object oriented data model similar to the tipster
we were motivated by statistical alignment models such as to investigate whether byte length probabilities could improve or replace the lexical matching based method
these corpora contain packed c fstructure representations maxwell of the grammatical parses of each sentence with respect to lexical functional grammars
as van note to define an operational semantics for a programruing language is to define an implementational independent interpreter for it
and the denotational definition of e.g. pp
most approaches to automatically categorizing words measure co occurrences between open class lexical
furthermore indicators measured over multiple clausal constituents e.g. main verb object pairs alleviate verb ambiguity and sparsity and improve classification
their technique which builds on work of and ultimately who stressed the role of lexical cohesion in text coherence is to form chains of lexical items across a text based on the items semantic relatedness as in null dicated by a thesaurus wordnet in their case
NUM coreference in the lasie system the lasie system has been designed as a general purpose ie system which can conform to the muc task specifications for named entity identification coreference resolution ie template element and relation identification and the construction of scenario specific ie templates
recently some researchers have pointed out the importance of the lexicon and proposed lexicalized models
since the relations between bunsetsu known as dependency are not always between sequential ones we use scfg to describe
the topics chosen NUM in all were drawn from the trec data sets
the lower bound of cross entropy is the entropy of japanese which is estimated to be NUM NUM bit
b a NUM a n c e a r m strings is to apply a dynamic programming
for a more recent and comprehensive reference see
we adopted the stop condition suggested in the maximization of the likelihood on a cross validation set of samples which is unseen at the parameter estimation
we attribute this to the fact that although we started with roughly the same atomic features as our system created complex features with higher prediction power
null 9v re use the xrce finite state tools regular expression syntax
use cascaded processing for full parsing with good results
in addition we use the corelex
in our paper we discuss to what extent a flexible discourse grammar based on a tree description grammar tdg can handle such data
as with wu s sbtg model the algorithm maximizes a probabilistic objective function equation NUM using dynamic programming similar to that for hmm
one was called as the adjacency model which was inspired by and the other was referred to as the dependency model which was presented by kobayasi NUM and lauer t995
argues that there is a correspondence between information structure intonation and syntactic constituency and it is a strength ofcg that it allows suitable syntactic constituents argue that there is no correspondence between information structure and syntactic constituency and that it is a strength of hpsg s multidimensional representation that we are not forced to assume such a correspondence
in order to use a semantic head driven generation algorithm with hpsg while including unscoped quantifiers and contextual backgrounds the role of semantic heads in the grammar needs to be consolidated as
we previously showed that wordnet synsets seem better indexing terms than senses
we further suggest that a large scale database of maximally aligned g p tuples has applications within the more conventional task of g p
used a partial parser to extract v n p tuples from a corpus where p is the preposition whose attachment is ambiguous between the verb v and the noun n
surface syntactic structure was identified using gsearch a tool which allows the search of arbitrary pos tagged corpora for shallow syntactic patterns based on a user specified context free grammar and a syntactic query
it is based on the left corner parser of pro patr pl in attributed originally to
the on the other hand is a collection of human computer dialogues
see van for further discussion NUM
we had hoped that some approach to a limit would be seen using ptb ii which larger and more consistent for bracketting than ptb i
however in yet unpublished work we found that at least for the computation of synonyms and related words neither syntactical analysis nor singular value decomposition lead to significantly better results than the approach described here when applied to the monolingual case so we did not try to include these methods in our system
it can also be considered as an extension from the monolingual to the bilingual case of the well established methods for semantic or syntactic word clustering as and others
ambiguity preserving semantic transfer can be devised on sets of meaning constructors rather than disambiguated meanings
instead of modifing the parsing algorithm as do we consider a more expressive connected route matching condition
one can also mix in smaller size language models when there is not enough data to support the larger context by using either interpolated estimation or a backoff
this extension relies on the use of a flat representation such as minimal recursion semantics mrs since the reason we can simply use append to construct the semantics of the output is that the semantics of any sign is always encoded as a list without any embedding of structures
in this section we extend this account by embedding the account in a syntactic framework based on ucg zeevat as integrated with dowty s approach to thematic roles and and augmented with
the expanded rules have the same properties as the lexical rule variants
for example self destruct rather than self destroy is the backformation from self destruction NUM
present a computational framework for efficient application formalization of lexical rules
however this approach reduces lexical rules to a purely abbreviatory device even more thoroughly original proposal
we refer the reader to l c and for formal specification and detailed motivation of the tdfs formalism
similar strategies have been adopted in several recent works in anaphor resolution such r vieira and others
we have adapted basic aspects of center algorithm considering subject object preference and domain concepts preference suggested aiming to estimate the most probable center for intrasentential ppas
we have shown a uniform approach to the dual problem of pos disambiguation and unknown word guessing as it appears in m greek reinforcing the argument that machine learning researchers should become more interested in nlp as an application area
factors enunciated as heuristic rules will act as constraints f1 to f5 or preferences f6 as established
during each step in order to find the feature that makes the best prediction of class labels and use it to partition the training set we select the feature with the highest gain ratio an information based quantity
our semantic approach considers possessive relationship rules in the form obj NUM owns obj2 used to represent part of relationships between typical entities of the domain according to semantic theory
we evaluated the routing module performance on both transcriptions of caller utterances as well as output of the bell labs automatic speech recognizer based on speech input of caller utterances
wakita proposed a robust translation method which locally extracts only reliable parts i.e. those within the semantic distance threshold and over some word length
some techniques for robust estimation with em are discussed by
again the best result was obtained with iob1 f i NUM NUM which is an im i rovement of the best reported f NUM rate for this data set NUM NUM
we will follow and use a combination of the precision and recall rates f i NUM precision recall precision recall
the ibi ig algorithm has been able to improve the best reported f2 NUM rates for a stan lar l data set NUM NUM versus ramshaw and mar s NUM NUM
for example a particular case is considered and solved in an ad hoc way the nominal translation as in 9b above is said to have an extra argument to those inherited from the verb so that its result reading can have its denotation properly derived
particularly we follow the formalisation of pustejovsky s semantics in feature structures
nonetheless a recent gives a good insight into how they can be treated
the termlist translation aims at translating a list of words that characterize a consistent text or a concept
by inspecting these analyses the student will be in a position to decide with respect to a certain tsuc was compiled and semi automatically
as our point of departure we have chosen to use a swedish one million woad balanced corpus the stockholm u me corpus suc ejerhed
an even more flexible use of finite state technology can be obtained by using a calculus of regular expressions
sense distinction according to a dictionary is readily available from machine readable dictionaries mrds such as the longman dictionary of contemporary english
to better illustrate the computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM types of discourses our methodology calls for constructing let us consider what would be needed to extend a particular focusing framework raft rapr described to handle resolving subject pronouns in sentences of the form sx because sy where sx and sy are simple sentences and in a sentence following that type of sentence
in these works the definitions are analyzed using either a parser or a pattern matcher into semantic relations
the semantic relations between the sense the genus and differentiae are reflected in what are termed categorical functional and situational
parenthetical material identifies relevant subsections in bies
claim that there is no clear cut referential difference between pronouns and nominals we will exclude pronouns in the implementation of our model
evans are both close to our proposals however they neither give a computational implementation nor an evaluation on real texts
used scientific and technical documents rather than general news
co description based approaches require annotation of source and target lexica and grammars
multiple agreements were identified early on in programming languages see for example and certain constructions having such characteristics can also be found in natural languages
the original co description based approach in faced problems when it came to examples involving embedded head switching and multiple adjuncts which led to the introduction of a restriction operator to enable transfer on partial f structures or semantic structures
however a recently introduced class of contextual grammars seems to be quite appealing from this point of view the grammars with a maximal use of selectors
the learning algorithm used in our coreference engine is c4
it seems more plausible that there is a proportion k that bounds the size of an used the equation x0 solution yes in his proof
this transducer always adopts an onward form in which the output substrings are assigned to the edges in such a way that they are as close to the initial state as they can be see NUM NUM for a recent reelaboration of these NUM
this fact can largely be predicted by the hypothesis of one sense per collocation and can partially explain the great success of brill s transformation based
NUM structural consistency the tokenization has no crossing brackets black with at least one correct and complete structural analysis of its underlying sentence
suri also reviewed literature on npl biased and np2 biased verbs see caramazza and the implications of this work for future analyses
we can give a recursive equation for z x b as follows using a proof similar to that of theorem NUM for items x e b and g NUM
for all w continuous semirings the supremum of iteratively approximating the value of a set of polynomial equations as we are essentially doing in equation NUM is equal to the smallest solution to NUM
this set of features induces a tree structured dependency graph on the productions which is characteristic of markov branching
constructed an edr based dependency parser by using a similar method to collins
we show how to implement derivation forests efficiently using pointers in a manner analogous to the typical implementation of parse forests and also similar to the work of
the third and the fourth are derived from a broadly used japanese thesaurus word list by semantic
in addition we compared three different models to evaluate our system default model by the dominant pattern dependency model presented by a nd our model
viterbi developed corresponding algorithms for computing in the viterbi semiring
goodman gives a full item based description of a ghr parser
tendeau gives an earley like algorithm that can be adapted to work with complete semirings satisfying certain conditions
i believe the h type ambiguous lexemes should be related via their lexical form only while their semantic types should remain unrelated i.e. there is no needs to introduce a disjunction fallacy as
we may also compare our approach with the projection architecture of lfg
have shown that recognition and parsing of such grammars is a NUM complete
this is true for most commercial word processors as well as the
all the experiments reported here used the penn ii wall street journal wsj corpus modified as described by i.e. empty nodes were deleted and all other components of nodes labels except syntactic category were removed
this representation permits adjuncts to be systematically distinguished from arguments although this does not seem to have been done systematically in the penn ii corpus NUM just as with the corpus are described in detail in
cardie presents an attribute selection approach to natural language processing relative pronoun disambiguation incorporating a small set of linguistic biases to be determined by experts
further proposed a method using neither lexicon nor segmented corpus for input texts simply grouping character pairs with high value of mutual information into words
to be independent from a certain grammatical theory or implementation we use restrictors similar as a flexible and easyto use specification to perform this deletion
the gloss of a verb synset provides a noun context for that verb i.e. the possible nouns occurring in the context of that particular verb
for the purpose of type generalization of nominal words in srps the kadokawa thesaurus titled new synonym dictionary is used which has a four level hierarchy with about NUM NUM semantic classes
however our analysis of a small corpus of oral descriptions of museum items collected for the ilex project revealed that long distance pronouns are much more common in this kind of data four times as common in fact out of a total of NUM pronouns NUM NUM NUM were long distance
NUM NUM generic pronouns refer back to the situation described by the current focus space NUM bridging descriptions can be related either to an entity in the current focus space or to an mse or to a discourse topic rthis would explain the difference in reading times observed by
the same search order was used
we describe theoretically correct implementations for both the viterbi derivation and viterbi n best semirings that keep all values in the event of ties preserving addition s associativity
even an approach in which only previous mses are on the stack would still allow access to entities which are part of what grosz called the im plicit focus of these mses i.e. the entities that 6as discussed in in general there is more than one potential antecedent for a bridging description in a text
tfss which can be viewed as generalizations of first order
we turned the segmentation task into a classification task by using boundaries between dialogue acts as one class and non boundaries as the other see for a similar practice
in all cases the quoted figures axe the best results obtained by the authors with the exception of the result which was obtained by using the same method
categories can not be defined in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions but rather each instance is categorized according to its similarity to the prototypes of the
this is exemplified by english with as well as japanese de which are used both as an instrumental or means marker and as a marker of manner how is similarly polysemous
sowa s are used for inserting an unknown relation between a concept of the type expected and the concept appearing on the surface which is later filled on the basis of world knowledge accessible to the system
showed how to compute some of the infinite summations in the inside semiring those needed to compute the prefix probabilities of pcfgs in cnf
proposed a japanese english transliteration method based on the mapping probability between english and japanese katakana sounds
the resulting constituent graph is shown in figure NUM a common topic as p NUM does not occur in the graph representation
for a detailed comparison of the two methods on the same task see
the intonation theory proposed is used to describe the intonation structure
the method used for segmentation called hierarchical agglomerative clustering hac was described in
the insufficiency of markov models has been known for many years
we used the carnegie mellon statistical language modeling cmu slm toolkit to calculate probabilities
hpsg analyses for other languages notably german consider article noun combinations to be
all the analyses described in the paper were computationally implemented using as the development framework
for instance calculated sa in terms of mutual information between two words
the choice between the different control strategies is related to system s overall behavior communication between tm and dm takes time and the dialogues become cumbersome if the user s knowledge is constantly queried but if too much is assumed backtracking and repairs may be
were the first to show that a corpus based approach to pp attachment ambiguity resolution can lead to good results
from a theoretical point of view the model presented by is in its background close to ours
but if we have information about feature relevance we can add linguistic bias to weight or select different
applied error driven transformation based learning to this task using the verb nounl preposition and noun2 features
however with the current representational means employed in computational implementations of sfc such as the nigel grammar in such a formulation is not readily possible
section NUM reviews some of the main issues in the constituency or dependency debate based on the two positions brought forward
or word is the notion of lexicalization the descriptive burden is in the lexicon which carries information that acts as constraint on syntactic structure
rares sont ceux qui ont utilisk un langage de spkcification formelle de haut
previous research on using contextual information in spoken language systems has mainly dealt with speech acts
show that to minimize cumulative contextual errors the best method with NUM NUM accuracy is the jumping context approach which relies on syntactic and semantic information of the input utterance rather than strict prediction of dialogue act sequences
of the several slightly different definitions of a base np in the literature we use for the purposes of this work the definition presented in and used also by and others
in order to be able to compare our results with the results obtained by other researchers we worked with the same data sets already used by for np and sv detection
in the niebur and koch model a modulating signal from the saliency map is propagated via NUM note that these columns have low spatial selectivity existing well along this visual processing hierarchy and are sensitive to such stimuli regardless of their position in the field
for object tagging to be useful in the present context requires some integration of the feature and location based models of selective attention considered in section NUM the mechanisms of the previous section are strongly reliant upon feature based attention and do not require an explicit saliency map
one of us initially prepared a manual that contained instructions pertaining to the functionality of the tool definitions of edus and rhetorical relations and a protocol that was supposed to be followed during the annotation
what to where transfer in the current model is based upon an extension of the feature based model of with propagation of top down modulation from the it assemblies to striate cortex and re propagation as for the where what linkages is
advances in brain sciences and information technology in recent decades have allowed the development of sophisticated models of cognitive processes at a hogan diederich and finn NUM selective dttention and acquisition of spatial semantics james m hogan joachim diedcrich and selective attention and the acquisition of spatial semantics
although we believe that cascade techniques that were used to measure agreement between hierarchies are more adequate for diagnosing problems in the annotation we found these techniques difficult to apply on our data
the relationship between language and object input is shown at the right of figure NUM tagging being represented by a conjunction between the language and object units within the binding network the winning conjunction being selected through a winner take all wta and unwanted weaker conjunctions being discarded
visual processing is typically decoupled into two regimes a pre attentive phase during which parallel extraction of elementary features is performed an attentive phase during which the more salient or conspicuous stimuli within the field are processed in sequence input from other stimuli being suppressed during this processing
enhanced activation is thus re propagated along the visual pathways giving this input stream substantial advantages in any competitive selection processes subsequently encountered NUM widespread propagation of an enhancement signal of this kind to features associated with an object at the most salient location in the visual field is thought to underpin feature
merging resources is not a new idea and previous work has investigated integration of resources for machine translation and interpretation
are in practice more efficient and faster than comparable chart parsers
the first is dijkstra s shortest path
with all but two formats ibi ig achieves better fz l rates than the best published result in
the bigram examples also show the advantages of lazy replacement and editing over the full expansion used in previous work
the grm library also includes an efficient compilation too for weighted context dependent rewrite rules that is used in textto speech projects at lucent bell laboratories
we had the most success with a slightly modified version of the simulated annealing optimizer described in
on a different set of data the muc NUM formal run data the accuracy of the two human taggers who were preparing the answer key was tested and it was discovered that one of them had an f measure of NUM NUM and the other of NUM NUM
mene is highly portable as we have already demonstrated with our result on upper case english text and even in its current state its results are already comparable to that of the only other purely statistical english ne system which we are aware of
in addition subsequent to the evaluation the university of and isoquest inc shared with us the outputs of their systems on our training corpora as well as on various test corpora
the viterbi search finds the highest probability path in which there are no two tokens in which the second one can not follow the first as defined by a table of all such invalid transitions a similar approach to
our method for associating each cluster with a translation consists of the following two major steps NUM extracting characteristic words from the cluster then NUM applying the termlist translation disambigua null tion to the list of words consisting of these characteristic words and the given word w
among them the facts that appropriate robust monolingual grammars may not be available and the grammars may be incompatible across languages NUM
the second accords with the also familiar thesis that conjunctive descriptions are more comprehensible they are the norm for typological and they are more readily acquired by experimental subjects than disjunctive ones bruner et
the chief source was chapters NUM NUM in karlsson et
a related strand of research by stevenson and her collaborators stevenson connects this work on centering to other possible influences on processing including preferences concerning and the effects of connective expressions in multiclause sentences
it does not pretend to be a complete stand alone tutorial in corpus linguistics it does not go to the length of say nor does it go into the same level of detail
we call the first one result as in it holds between two sentences when the main eventuality of the first one is the cause of the main eventuality of the second one
while black s results were encouraging our attempt to use c4 NUM a decision tree on the topical encoding of line were uniformly disappointing leacock
computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM undergraduates were more accurate at resolving word senses when given complete sentences than when given only an alphabetized list of content words appearing in the sentences leacock
null we adopt as a basis for the description of imp the proposal made in the drt framework amended with proposals made in french literature in particular concerning the anaphoric properties of this tense
it is also worth observing that the temporal interval that lies between a cause and its consequence might play a role as suggested especially for this contrast between activities and accomplishments
we assume the view on discourse adopted within the srdt in a coherent discourse sentences are linked by discourse relations which help finding anaphor antecedents computing temporal localisations etc
non parse type goals are interpreted using the standard interpreter of the controll grammar development system as developed and implemented by thilo gstz
in a sophisti null cated retrieval system based on conceptual similarity resultled in a decrease of ir performance
the controll grammar development system as described in implements the above mentioned techniques for compiling an hpsg theory into typed feature grammars
further research involves investigating representation formalisms as discussed in to best implement these type inheritance hierarchies
it is also worth noting that there is an affinity between achievements and imparfait de rupture
the orthographic check is done in the
kroch and his colleagues have argued convincingly that this is what happened in many cases of diachronic change
the terminal sequence is complemented by tags stuttgart tiibingen tagset
for our experiments we use the negra corpus
we extend the method for decision tree classifiers using a statistical technique called
our genetic programming approach has been shown previously to be orders of magnitude more efficient than the nainimum distance parsing approach
for context tracking we use an algorithm
examined how intonational information can distinguish between discourse and sentential interpretation for a set of ambiguous lexical items
used preboundary lengthening pausal durations and other acoustic cues to automatically label intonational phrases and word accents
idf NUM one important feature here is that we defined similarity based on japanese characters rather than on words in practice we broke up nominals from relevant sentences into simple alphabetical characters including graphemes and used them to measure similarity between the sentences
the parameters involved can be determined using the em
tomokiyo p c in experiments with the janus speech system developed by carnegie mellon university reports that systems with recognition accuracies of NUM for native speech perform at NUM NUM for high fluency l2 learners german tomokiyo p c and NUM for medium fluency speech japanese tomokiyo p c
our goal is to have the automatic scoring system mirror the outcome of raters trained in the actfl to determine whether examinees did or did not reach the intermediate low level
for example although spanish and english both have subjectverb object svo word order the relative ordering of many nouns and adjectives differs the head parameter NUM in english the adjective precedes the noun whereas spanish adjectives of nationality color and shape regularly follow pp
primitive optimality theory otp and extensions to it can be useful as a formal system in which phonological analyses can be implemented and evaluated
more efficient o lm training was devised by
the grammar factor at the exponent can be reduced if we furtherly restrict the long distance dependencies through the introduction of a more restrictive data structure than the set as it happens in some constrained phrase structure formalisms
however even if banned from the dependency literature the use of non lexical categories is only a notational variant of some graph structures already present in some formalisms see e.g.
for example one popular approach to automated abstract generation has been to select key sentences from the original text using statistical and linguistic cues perform some cosmetic adjustments in order to restore cohesiveness and then output the result as a single passage brandow kupiec
on the controlled relaxation of projective has introduced the condition of pseudodeg projectivity which provides some controlled looser constraints on arc crossing in a dependency tree and has developed a polynomial parser based on a graph structured stack
discourse macro structure of a text it has been observed eg that certain types of texts such as news articles technical reports research papers etc conform to a set of style and organization constraints called the discourse macro structure dms which help the author to achieve a desired communication effect
i have not implemented the that gives a reduced penalty for adjacent skips in the same string to reflect the fact that affixes tend to be contiguous
the standard way to find the best alignment of two strings is a matrix based technique known as
two ten letter strings have anywhere from NUM NUM to NUM NUM NUM different alignments depending on exactly what alignments are
we give a mathematically precise definition of the semiring that handles these cases
we call a naturally ordered complete NUM if for any sequence xl x2 and for any constant y if for all n o i n xi u y then i xi u y
in order to show this in another experiment we mapped our large tag set to a smaller set of NUM tags which is comparable to the tag set used in the brown corpus
there have been attempts to provide free morphological analyzers to the research community for other languages for example in the multext project armstrong russell which developed linguistic tools for six european languages
yields information from the grammatical constructions in which an unknown lexical item symbolized by the black square occurs in terms of the corresponding dependency parse tree
furthermore each method has generated some discussion in the literature
the automatic preprocessing by using public domain proceedings of eacl NUM tools for example can achieve NUM for morphological analysis and NUM for bunsetsu identification
comparison with fujio s work and haruno s work fujio used the maximum likelihood model with similar features to our model in his parser
it has also been suggested that sentence length ratio correlations may arise partly out of historic cognate based relationships between indo european languages
a particular method proposed here is built on the committee based sampling initially proposed for probabilistic classifiers by where an example is selected from the corpus according to its utility in improving statistics
the chart parsing method to be presented is derived from the earley style dtg parsing method of and in some sense both simplifies and complicates their method
s idea is to assume the distribution p al al an an i s as a set of binomial distributions each corresponding to one of its parameters
has described summarization as a two stage process of NUM building a representation of the source text and NUM generating a summary representation from the source representation and producing an output text from this summary representation
a favorable tradeoff in recall presents an advantage for applications that weigh the identification of non dominant classes more heavily
however demonstrate that the inter dependence impacts only NUM of the predictions
comparing our tree induction algorithm and igtree the algorithm used in mbt their main difference is that igtree produces oblivious decision trees by supplying an a priori ordered list of best features instead of re computing the best feature during each branching which is our case
from the class of a bunsetsu the content word sequence and the function word sequence are independently predicted by word n gram models equipped with unknown word models
evaluates in detail a maximum entropy language model which combines unigrams bigrams trigrams and long distance trigger words and provides a thorough analysis of all the merits of the approach
the terms parameter and value are used in our task in the same sense as in the school of theoretical syntactic thought consecutively known as government principles and the
data about each parameter includes the language the name of the parameter the list of entities to which this parameter applies its domain and the list of parameter values its NUM we have introduced boas and discussed some pertinent theoretical
the for labeling vertices of polygonal solid objects can be thought of in these terms
our claim about the necessity of a perceivable discrimination seems in accordance with what robert dale observes about referential expression generation
a definition of tdg is who introduces tree descriptions consisting of constraints for finite labeled trees
hearst et al proposed the scatter gather approach for facilitating information retrieval
a blackboard like architecture is proposed by in order to integrate various knowledge sources but no evaluation is given
the first approach to mention is the radical one of converting hpsg into something else before generation such as tree adjoining grammar though this seems to support the view that hpsg is unsuitable for generation it is in fact a valuable contribution to work on compiling hpsg grammars for efficient processing whether for parsing or for generation
controll NUM developed out of the troll system
the most successful approach to morphology in computational linguistics has been the two level approach
observe that each speaker turn is a disjoint piece of graph structure and that hierarchical organization uses the chart construction 179ff
further those results are consistent with the frequency of different types of coreferentiai configurations in corpora of naturally occurring
apart from linking wordnet and ldoce as did we also experimented with roget to broaden the amount and type of information
mtseg from the multext project presented in is used for segmenting the raw texts
3e using hindle lexical association score cf
we have also implemented more sophisticated methods proposed recently that are related to the single link strategy
secondly experience showed that the lexical ambiguity carried by generic dictionaries does not allow their direct use in computational systems
for the computation of related terms and and used the cosine measure p NUM used a weighted jaccard measure
these lists were compiled by looking at the closed class words mainly articles pronouns and particles in an english and a german morphological lexicon for details see lezius rapp and at word frequency lists derived from our corpora
to conclude with let us add some speculation by mentioning that the ability to identify word translations from non parallel texts can be seen as an indicator in favor of the associationist view of human language acquisition see also and
these are NUM a german corpus NUM an english corpus NUM a number of german test words with known english translations NUM a small base lexicon german to english as the german corpus we used NUM million words of the newspaper and as the english corpus NUM million words
one is an account of the modern beijing mb dialect from an earlier stage of chinese referred to as middle chinese and the other is an account of the modern cantonese mc dialect also from middle chinese published as
for example the lexical rule for third singular verb formation NUM NUM is given in figure NUM
first the notion of similarity as defined in the previous section is more restrictive than the traditional definition of
stress is a selection of secondary stress assignment patterns from the dutch version of the celex lexical database baayen piepenbrock on the basis of phonemic representations of syllabified words
the tagger has been trained for tagging english texts with an accuracy of NUM
thus the basic structure of the sign is as follows ldeg 9in fact our implementation follows the lines among others
for proposed a lexical database in italian which has the features of both a dictionary and a thesaurus and tried to build a fuller bilingual lexicon by enhancing machine readable dictionaries with large corpora
instead of the ad hoc solution the treatment proposed here derives from a general and systematic approach to the semantic structure of predicates and their nominalisations
the three lexical resources used in revision of roget s thesaurus roget the longman dictionary of contemporary english ldoce and wordnet NUM NUM wn
the first is bfp s limitation as a cognitive model since it makes no provision for incremental resolution
a simple version of this facility is and it has turned out to be very useful during grammar construction
this solution is very attractive if the goal is to generate fully voweled orthographical surface strings of arabic but for the phonological examples in this paper we adopt the gemination representation as used by
the center cb ui d is the highestranked element of c ui i d that is realized in ui
the current morphological analyzer is based on dictionaries and rules licensed from an earlier project at rebuilt completely using xerox finite state
the stems in figure NUM share the drs root morpheme and indeed they are traditionally organized under a drs heading in printed lexicons like the authoritative dictionary of modern written arabic
trec text retrieval conference by arpa includes this kind of
describe methods for identifying the likely locations of topic bearing sentences
these results are consistent with
proposed a committee based sampling method which is currently applied to hmm training for part of speech tagging
lexical data accumulated will be represented as objects of the common lisp object system
the actual accenting is determined by prosodic labeling using the tobi standard
these basic steps of collect filter and order by salience are analogous to lappin pronoun resolution algorithm but each step in fastus relies on considerably poorer syntactic input
made a hypertext dictionary of the field of information science
some of the rules are given below r1 when the referential property of a noun phrase an anaphor is definite and the same noun phrase a has already appeared c lcb the noun phrase a NUM rcb a referential property is estimated by this method murata
however both rhetorical structure theory and the intention based approach to diacourse strutture associated with c ntering theory involve high level reamning
we use the inference engine described to anchor the utterance in the common ground and update the common ground with its entailments
the grammatical function of a referring expression reflects the local attentional status of the referent i.e. subject position generally holds the highest ranking member of the forward looking centers list cf list while direct object holds the next highest ranking member of the cf list
in addition to production features the stochastic lfg models evaluated below used the following kinds of features guided by the principles proposed by
at the abstract finite state level our solution may have some similarities with the proposal which aims at modeling autosegmental phonology by coding nonlinear autosegmental representations as linear strings
sproat has taken into consideration the predicate argument relation of nominals on the basis of generative syntax
for a broad survey on this issue
starting from the aspectual categories the verb and the lexical representations we have developed a new synthesized approach for dealing with verb alternations that affect the aktionsart of verbs
to accomplish these goals the need for fine grained lexical semantic representations is pointed out although there is no strong consensus yet on exactly what such representations should look like see the discussion in levin and chapter NUM
given a large corpus of text data we built the assymetric trigger relation by finding the pairs in the cross product of the vocabulary that have the highest average mutual information as
on the other hand concluded that polysemy hurt retrieval only if the searcher needed very high recall or was using very short one or two word queries
many efforts at using ensembles of classifiers have reported that to get significant improvements the members of the ensemble should be as uncorrelated as possible paramanto
in previous work we took exactly this approach and showed that diagnostic phrases could be used to improve the accuracy of a topical classifier leacock
as put it the rules are run in careful application mode NUM
in this study two algorithms an implementation of bse and a simplification of the bsej algorithm were wrapped around three types of classifiers ibi ig ib1 ig mvdm a classifier related to pebls in using mvdm and igtree
the centering algorithm described by brennan friedman henceforth bfp algorithm interprets the centering model in a certain way and applies it to the resolution of pronouns
grosz joshi admit that several factors may have an influence on the ranking of the cf but limit their exposition to the exploitation of grammatical roles only
a general description of the design of wm with references to various publications where the formalism is discussed in more detail can be found in ten
in a recent paper propose to extend centering theory with what is essentially sidner s stack of discourse foci although their algorithm for identifying the ce is not identical to sidner s
the partial automation of the annotation process automatic regocnition of phrase labels and grammatical functions has reduced the average annotation time from about NUM to NUM NUM NUM minutes per sentence i.e. NUM NUM tokens per minute which is comparable to the figures published by the creators of the penn treebank in marcus santorini
the representation form most commonly used is a vector whose coordinates depend on the terms frequency of occurrence where such terms are elements of the text represented which can coincide with words stems or words associations n grams
the paper reported an experiment over periods
we use the plan processor for the selection of protocol relevant data
both percentages are much lower than what reported but differences between the evaluation approaches used is the probable reason
we are not concerned here with the details of this in the examples we have treated the colon in the feedback text as a major structural boundary so preferring a definite description in the feedback text and a pronoun in the output text
several thinning algorithms are available in the literature
found this to be the case for some documents where all anes genemted and leading text summaries were rated as acceptable
earlier work in this direction has been using state based notations and was aiming at the exploration of this field at a high level of abstraction
although in principle any cognitive theory might be adopted we address one particular cognitive model phil barnard s interacting cognitive subsystems or shortly ics
the library of contains templates for performing actions
finite state morphology is based on the claim that both morphotactics and phonological orthographical variation rules i.e. the relation of underlying forms to surface forms can be formalized using finite state automata
we also allow the patterns to contain non radical consonants as in the following perfect active form vii form viii and form x examples
although the most accessible computer of finite state morphotactics have been limited to building words via the concatenation of morphemes the theory itself does not have this limitation
this may sound like sliding on the slippery slope who points out that the answer to the question how far back does generation go is tied to the proportional amounts of linguistic and contextual information in the specification which serves as the source of generation
another type typeb is that users executes interactions d
the lexicalized result is then transformed into a syntactic structure and linearized into a string using a realization component based on functional unification
two principles based on syntactic information are minimal attachment ma and late closure lc
cls can build a linguistic system both by pasting already existing components and modifying them 5at present geppetto features two chart based parsers a bidirectional head driven bottom up and a cyk like and a head driven bottom up non deterministic
we collected NUM forms in NUM strong and NUM weak
in order to perform such a traversal a breadth traversal with compilation of all crowns of the lattice see a would be necessary
we treat call routing as an instance of document routing where a collection of judged documents is used for training and the task is to judge the relevance of a set of test documents
with appropriate scaling of the axes by the singular values on the diagonal of s we can compare documents to documents and terms to terms using their corresponding points in this new r dimensional space
the tool is used as pan of the lexicon building process in the framenet project an nsf funded project aimed at creating a lexical database based on the principles of
aprhs une prksentation des avantages qu offrent les mkthodes formelles dans le processus de dkveloppement d un logiciel d une manihre gknkrale cet article essaye de mettre en relief les avantages specifiques au domaine de taln partant d une expkrience mende au sein de notre kquipe en utilisant la mkthode
NUM rappel des principaux avantages des mdthodes formelles l int gration des mkthodes formelles dans le processus de dkveloppement de certaines applications critiques comme les systhmes temps rdel et les systhmes distribu ks a donnk ses preuves ces dernihres annkes
such rss as that also proposes rss as paths for such events
as front end sentence generator we use
null the approach of disambiguates the text using xt and engcg independently then the ambiguities remaining in engcg are solved using the resuits of xt
see chapter NUM for discussion of this issue
output of this stage is then fed directly to the surface realization package the fuf surge
structure of texts we are aware of only one proposal for computing agreement with respect to the way human judges construct hierarchical structures that of
this section briefly explains the compound word translation method we previously proposed
ous work e.g. that a great number of definite descriptions in texts are discourse new in our second experiment we found an equal number of discourse new and discourse related definite descriptions although many of the definite descriptions classified as discourse new could be seen as associative in a loose sense
similar cases of underspecified definite descriptions have been observed before e.g. nunberg s john shot himself in or i m going to the store mentioned in clark but no real account has been given of the conditions under which they are possible
sanderman proposes a boundary depth of five to achieve more natural phrasing
the chunking classification was made by based on the parsing information in the wsj corpus
our subjects were asked to classify the definite descriptions found in a corpus of natural language texts according to classification schemes that we developed starting from the taxonomies proposed by hawkins lcb NUM but which took into account our intention of having naive speakers perform the classification
the iob1 format introduced in consistently ame out as the best format
NUM an estimate of the relative productivity of a lexical rule would correspond notion of type frequency while the conditional probability of a lexical entry being associated with a specific word form corresponds to her token frequency
the estimate for degree of productivity of a rule can be combined with smoothing to obtain a variant enhanced smoothing method of the type discussed by capable of assigning distinct probabilities to unseen events within the same distribution
treat the blocking of regular rules of morphological affixation by making the application of was the first to propose this interpretation of lexical rules though she chose to represent them directly in the type inheritance hierarchy
however apart for lack of flexiblility integrated systems mostly must make use of the concept to speech whereas the interface presented here can also be used with a textto speech synthesis
the reason for this separation is the observation that decisions at the hierarchical level are often possible at a time where input information is not yet sufficient to make decisions at the positional
proposals have been put forward e.g. by and kaji eta
however we are now more interested on experimenting with the inclusion of our tagger as a component in an ensemble of preexisting tuggers in the style of van
in particular they suggest that there is substantial psycholinguistic evidence that people do n t generate the shortest most efficient nps and that this behavior is regarded as perfectly natural for a survey
for instance is one of several researchers to have shown that pronouns in subject position that specify the highest ranked cf forward looking center of the preceding utterance are interpreted more rapidly than repeated names in subject position
first consider the results of continuation studies for such examples the evidence here is from stevenson crawley third experiment the results of which confirm the findings from two other continuation experiments reported there
according to benson s definition a collocation is a recurrent word combination
a central concern of semantic underspecification van is the underspecification of the scope of variable binding operators such as quantifiers
in this proposed using a clue different from the three mentioned above his co occurrence clue is based on the assumption that there is a correlation between co occurrence patterns in different languages
recent work in computational linguistics and cognitive psychology e.g. has shown that large corpora implicitly contain semantic information which can be extracted and manipulated in the form of co occurrence vectors
and in the only case in which a rich taxonomy of NUM relations was used the corpus was small and specific to a very restricted genre written interactions between a student and tutor on the subject of fault location and repair in electronic circuitry
to this purpose it provides parallelism constraints of the form x x y y i reminiscent to equality up to constraints and anaphoric bindings constraints of the form ante x x
this property has been presented as an independent motivation for minimally recursive representations from the machine translation point of view and has been most thoroughly explored in the context of the substitution operations required for transfer
the disambiguator is a particular formulation of feed forward neural networks rumelhart that separately extract topical and local contexts of a target word from a set of sample sentences that are tagged with the correct sense of the target
phonological changes can occur in a morpheme between morphemes in a word and even between words in a phrase break as described in the NUM general phonological rules for korean korean
the trm tracks entities as they ithe te ure of a text is related to the listener s perceptio of coherence and is manifested by certain kinds of semantic relations called cohesive ties between i individual message
in future work we plan to use the em algorithm to uncover the hidden class but for the present study we simply approximate p classlamb class using a heuristic based on class size
unfortunately determining the correct sense of a query word using simply the paradigmatic relations that organize wordnet and other thesauri is unlikely to NUM instead the word sense disambiguation literature strongly suggests that syntagmatic relations are important for sense resolution
another way to view text data mining is as a process of exploratory data that leads to the discovery of heretofore unknown information or to answers for questions for which the answer is not currently known
this is also true of lambert more recent work on modeling negotiation subdialogues
the initial size of each co occurrence matrix was NUM by NUM where rows and columns correspond to the NUM NUM and NUM most frequent words in the corpus NUM each initial matrix was then reduced by using svd into a matrix of NUM by NUM using svd packc
the frequencies are detailed in table NUM and were compiled from a lemmatized version of the british national corpus bnc a widely distributed NUM million word collection of samples of written and spoken
roche presents an approach for parsing in which the input is iteratively bracketed using a finite state transducer
robinson gives four axioms for well formed dependency structures which have been assumed in almost all computational approaches
before starting the anaphora resolution process the syntactic structure analyzer transforms sentences into dependency structures
it is thought that in a set of patterned constructions
2our use of ambiguity classes is inspired by a similar use in hmm based part of speech
indeed it has beeen shown that if the bursts are important they are not determinant for plosive identification in comparison with the formant transitions
since the regions of the drm model can be obtained from the formant variations of a uniform tube and since these regions indeed correspond to the places of articulation we may hypothesize the following the bursts associated with the plosives are consequences of closure opening actions
using the places of articulation defined by this model taking into account the first three formants we were able to obtain the formant transitions
the mrayati is structured in regions the limits of which correspond to the zero crossings of the sensitivity function computed on a uniform closed open tube figure NUM
de swart proposes an analysis of temporal adverbials and temporal clauses within segmented drt sdrt
appelt has considered the question of integrating referring and informing although rather briefly and without much detail
the meta rules add a slot for temporal pps which state the date e.g.
previous approaches like or c4 which use variations on greedy search i.e. localized best next step search typically based on information gain heuristics have as their major goal prediction on unseen instances and therefore do not have as an explicit concern the conciseness intelligibility and comprehensiveness of the output
a genetic approach is used to search for different ways to combine the fragments in order to avoid requiring any hand crafted repair rules
goodwin found that assessments often display the following format
during the development and the tuning of the algorithm we used the method of pseudowords gale to avoid the need for manual verification of the resulting sense tags
lacking a polynomial reformulation decided to collect counts only over a subset of likely alignments
for example we consider the words doctor and health to be similar because they frequently share contexts although they are far removed from each other in a typical semantic hierarchy such as the wordnet
moreover as authors have noted that derivational accounts of pm are bound to miss important linguistic generalizations that are best expressed via constraints
there is also work on the estimation of the theoretical vocabulary size national
this applies both to new variations on old weighting algorithms such as the double log tf weighting from at t singhal choi hindle lewis and to more major variations such as the new weighting algorithm from tno and the completely new retrieval model from bbn miller leek
i implemented a very simple pruning strategy
for realizing efficient nlp systems i am currently building an efficient parser by integrating the packing method with the compilation method for hpsg
some constraint transformation methods whose resulting constraints are compact have been
resyllabification is also related to NUM this corresponds to syllable contact law which was
from a linguistic perspective cl papers and references in walker centering theor sts have explained the choice of c6 in a sentence in terms of a large number of potential factors
allow for partial parses for trees of depth of one or for one result only
centeringtheory first described in detail in gro z is designed to provide an assignment of a preference order among discourse entities in a sentence for the purpose of anaphora resolution
in fact in exploring other aspects of local focusing frameworks other literature appears to have tried to make use of semantically neutral texts in this fashion e.g. brennan walker
we give a simple inductive proof to show that both interpreters compute the correct values
the early studies by and showed the possibility of predicting dialogue act tags for next utterances with statistical methods
many asymptotic properties of supercritical branching processes are established by
for example in a separate study optimizing for f measure resulted in a more dramatic tradeoff in recall values as compared to those attained when optimizing for
introduction described two types of ill formedness relative i.e.
aspectual classification is a key component of models that assess temporal constraints between clauses
a favorable tradeoff in recall with no loss in accuracy presents an advantage for applications that weigh the identification of nondominant instances more heavily
in a separate study a comparison between two human markers using this test to classify clauses over all verbs showed an agreement of approximately NUM
as shown in table NUM an event recall of NUM NUM was achieved by the classification rule as compared to speech
the resulting string of symbols NUM is used to train two 4th order markov
hutchens and alder NUM introducing megahal jason l hutchens and introducing megahal
this default multiple inheritance network is im null proceedings of eacl NUM plemented using yadu which is an order independent default unification operation on typed feature structures tfs
while query sensitive multidocument systems exist evaluating such systems for the purpose of comparison is difficult
the system of lexical types is based on the one proposed by but uses the more expressive typed default feature structures is more succinct and able to express linguistic sub regularities more elegantly
thus far there has been only one systematic multisite evaluation of summarization approaches organized by u s darpa NUM in the tradition of message understanding conferences and text retrieval conferences which have proven successful in stimulating research in their respective areas information extraction and information retrieval
uses rhetorical structure analysis to guide the selection of text segments for the summary similarly teufel and moens analyze argumentative structure of discourse to extract appropriate sentences
more recently theron have pre null sented a scheme for obtaining two level morphology rules from a set of aligned segmented and surface pairs
another automatically trainable system described in
splitting techniques are used in other shallow parsers such
estimation of the parameters has been described elsewhere
says that the key lesson from the work on pronoun generation and interpretation is that we must develop a more sophisticated view of xpectafion i
in the next section we identify a restricted pattern of use of linear logic in the glue analyses we are aware of including those in
we give the formal system behind this approach c in figure NUM this is a different presentation of the system given in adding the two standard rules for tensor using pairing for meanings
there are two kinds of paradigms distinguishes NUM forms but for the purposes of this paper i will consider only the first ten ones which are the productive forms
our solution is to retain istag but move the isomorphism restriction from the derivation structure to the predicate argument attachment structure described in
there have been other approaches to morphology than the two level approach in computational linguistics gazdar and evans a knowledge representation language which has been used to write fragments of the morphology of a number of languages among
this work departs from two level morphology which has been at the center of computational morphology since the implementation and was applied to arabic morphology and to syriac
inheritance monotonic and non monotonic is a feature of object oriented programming languages and both kinds of unification have been extensively used unification of feature structures in the nlp community string unification in the field of automatic thus we can hope that implementation will be straightforward and results acceptable in terms of efficiency
finally this approach does not restrict the grammar writer to the framework of linear phonology and allows for the testing of a certain type of morphological theories which claim that bound morphemes do not exist as lexicon l there are a number of
it is widely agreed that missing nps in japanese behave like pronouns in other languages such as there were only three attn idon statea in t e origml o ulmion by 99s namely continue retain and shifz
this raises the question how should a parse tree be interpreted that does not fit the representational scheme used to construct the treebank training data NUM the penn treebank annotation conventions are described in detail in
for example it would be interesting to know to what extent the performance of more sophisticated parsing systems such as those depends on the particular tree representations they are trained on
jackendoff and others have proposed that lexical rules be interpreted as redundancy statements that abbreviate the statement of the lexicon but that are not applied generatively
NUM an alternative method of exploiting the tdfs formalism to encode rules was mentioned in l c page NUM and has been
to tackle this difficulty we generate a set of decision trees by adaboost algorithm illustrated in table NUM
for english written text both of these tasks are relatively easy although not trivial see
some initial studies of transcription of broadcast news proceed
is a languageindependent system for automatic discovery of text in parallel translation on the world wide web
the framework could be described as a somehwat relaxed version of spe
showed how to compute the lcp vector in o nlogn time even for corpora with long repeated substrings though for many corpora the complications required to avoid quadratic behavior are unnecessary
evaluates instance based learning algorithms and a decision tree algorithm finding that the best of these algorithms can achieve NUM NUM accuracy
a mechanism for focus tracking or a clustering algorithm should be applied first in order to minimize the costs
conclusion and plans the algorithm for transforming lattices into non deterministic finite state automata which we have presented here has been successfully applied to lattices derived from dictionaries i.e. very large corpora of pages NUM NUM
stales model has been used extensively by discourse analysts and researchers in the field of english for specific purposes for tasks as varied as teaching english as a foreign language human translation and citation but always for manual analysis by a single person
to estimate the probability distributions we follow the approach of and use a decision tree learning algorithm to partition the context into equivalence classes
introduction the mathematical properties of dependency are
the dependency rule cum functional constraint emulation in in press has obviously been influenced by lfg
following the treatment of pustejovsky s dotted this fact leads us to conceive construccid as an open dotted type and decoracid as a closed dotted type
mehl describes a system which can turn an existing fully explicit argument into an enthymematic one but it can not generate an argument from constituent propositions
however there is not a reliable signal for detecting the interruption point of speech repairs bear nor the occurrence of intonational phrases
the main reason behind this lies in the difference between the two corpora used penn treebank and edr
in order to obtain linguistic expressions marking concepts and relation we have tagged our corpus with a pos and we have used a to semantically classify the lexical items most of them are polysemous
this is similar in spirit to the approach taken by who argue persuasively for the use in education of so called es
the transfer based approach also covers data from the appointment scheduling domain using both linguistic and contextual information for assigning defininteness
we have shown elsewhere that it is too indulgent and have proposed new algorithms which seem to us more relevant named here core mr and exclusive core mr
some of the robust approaches derive from anaphora resolution e.g. because the antecedent anaphoric links are a particular sort of coreference links which disambiguate pronouns
second it neglects an important distinction in re use between identification and information as described for instance by
the work of can also be seen as falling in this paradigm since a separate representation of knowledge the functional representation is used only for explanation and the explanation must be specially derived from this
the security assistant or sa webber is part of the designexpert tool which helps software engineers analyze system wide or non functional requirements such as security fault tolerance and human computer interaction
a very important early result based on experiences with explanation NUM in systems such as was the finding that reasoning strategies employed by programs do not form a good basis for understandable explanations p NUM
this is in fact the lesson from much previous work in expert system explanation for example the work of contrasting the line of reasoning and the line of explanation and the claim of that the domain representation must be augmented with additional knowledge about the domain and about reasoning in the domain
have recently discussed the nature of referring expression generation focusing on the case of definite noun phrases
our data is from four randomly chosen dialogs in the callhome english corpus
furthermore as pointed the sense division in an mrd is frequently too fine grained for the purpose of wsd
the best known publicly available corpus hand tagged with wordnet senses is semcor a subset of the brown corpus of about NUM documents that occupies about NUM NUM mb of text 22mb
our investigation had two goals to verify on a larger scale the results that suggested for leading text and to determine whether there are easily definable indicators of where leading text extracts fare poorly as general purpose news document summaries
there is a growing body of research into approaches for generating text summaries including approaches based on sentence extraction text generation from templates and machine assisted abstraction
carden s finding is bolstered by recent work which provides clear support for the idea that in backwards anaphora the pronoun is overwhelmingly present in a fronted adjunct
external information such as the discourse or domain dependency of each word sense is expected to lead to system improvement
predicate argument structures which consist of complements case filler nouns and case markers and verbs have also been used in the task of
in practice every r whose association degree is above a certain threshold is chosen as a
NUM it ispassed on to a surface generator for dutch that is similar to the surge surface generator for english notice how the lemmas for participants and circumstances are instantiated by means of paths that refer to the relevant values within the unit s data feature s figure NUM also illustrates the distribution of focus
depending on the content and word order of its utterance a unit projects similar information to the fc idegfc stands for forward centers because its use shows some resemblance to the notion of a set of forward centers in centering theory grosz
the relation between parsing times with the expanded exp the covariation cov and the constraint propagated covariation opt lexicon for a german hpsg grammar hinrichs meurers can be represented as opt exp cov NUM NUM NUM NUM
penn treebank was also used to induce part of speech pos taggers because the corpus contains very precise and detailed pos markers as well as bracket annotations
NUM 6this constraint is based on the stratal uniqueness theorem of and related work in relational grammar which is assumed to be a constraint across all languages
some knowledge management projects have experimented with graphical presentations which allow editing by direct manipulation so that there is no need to learn the syntax of a programming language see for example
their task is simpler in that there are fewer possible activities that a caller might request and fewer overall destinations but it is more complex in that vocabulary NUM wright gorin presents system performance in the form of a rejection rate vs correct classification rate graph with rejection rate ranging between NUM NUM and correct classification rate ranging between NUM NUM
the only work on natural language call routing to date that we are aware of is that by gorin and his colleagues gorin who designed an automated system to route calls to at t operators
this linearized form maintains the same linguistic information of the original lexical representation and somewhat corresponds to mccarthy s notion of tier
ramshaw has augmented litman and allen s two types of plans with a different third type exploration plans
disambiguation we adopted the unsupervised word sense disambiguation wsd algorithm based on distributional
the multi tape model originally proposed is an extension to the commonly used regular rewrite rules
one way to arrive at these predictions is to use a feature based hierarchy of the connectives that appear in the complex sentences as in knott
here we shall use the following formalism which derives from the one reported by to express regular rewrite rules
an underspecified semantic class is an abstract semantic type which encodes systematic polysemy or regular NUM a set of word senses that are related in systematic and predictable ways eg
for other 1for the experiments described in this paper we have used timbl an mbl software package developed in the ilk group timbl is available from http ilk kub nl
molendijk shows that this connection can be a causal relation
natural language processing in the unisys natural language understanding nlu system dahl is done by a natural language nl engine with the architecture shown in figure NUM
the knowledge base server is based on wordnet a machine readable hierarchical network of concepts which was developed and distributed by princeton and on work done at the information sciences institute isi of the university of southern california
knott proposes that semantic and pragmatic connections are sensitive to intended effects
a verb with no semantic information will be assigned roles such as agent or theme based on the syntax of the input utterance and statistical information about usage of these roles generally in other english
for comparison we implemented the ocr error correction method which does not use character similarity information presented
the aim of the present work is to improve an existing pos tagger based on decision trees by using ensembles of classifiers
hence information access for transformation processes like transfer is not as straightforward as it could be when using flat set
the equations calculating the inside and outside probabilities for pltigs can be
litman used machine learning techniques to identify discourse markers
walker presents as an alternative to the focus space stack previously proposed to model global a cache model in which linear recency and a highly constrained cache capacity play primary roles
studies of coreference beyond the local domain called reinstatement in the psychological literature do not provide evidence of a powerful effect of recency in determining ease of comprehension
one source of evidence for this view is that frequently people can easily resume a task that has been interrupted a kind of evidence that was also used to motivate the original
walker presents a cache model of the operation of attention in the processing of discourse as an alternative to the focus space stack that was proposed previously by grosz
like in NUM pk for k NUM impose proper probabifity distributions on f
cruse specifies two ways in which context affects the semantic contribution of a word sense selection and sense modulation
we get continues until the sense view reaches a certain level of stability for more details
our 3rd criterion ensuring the coordination between equally simple alternative profiles and with no precedence in the linguistic literature proved essential in the pruning of solutions details of kinship are reported pericliev and vald s p rez forthcoming
the group from the okapi system city university london robertson walker hancock beaulieu decided to experiment with a completely new term weighting algorithm that was both theoretically and practically based on term distribution within longer documents
the explanation for the other relations is detailed
switching to an entirely different domain consider a recent effort to determine the effects of publicly financed research on industrial advances
ssns are a natural extension of simple kecurrent networks srns elman i99i which are in turn a natural extension of multi layered perceptrons mlps
a semi automatic procedure similar to the rule learning algorithm developed by was used to parse words into graphemes
mlps are popular because they can approximate any finite mapping and because training them with the backpropagation learning algorithm has been demonstrated to be effective in a wide variety of applications
recently the effort to develop techniques for domain independent content characterization has been addressed by
another hypothesis suggested is that the relevance judgments are less consistent for routing than they are for the ad hoc task and that this inconsistency prevents the machine learning methods that are prevalent in the task from performing well
results are consistent with those
stated that the intonational features for many indo european languages help cue the structure of spoken discourse
so for instance in the hou analysis of and the right hand side of the focus equation for 10b becomes fv f where neither fv the focus value nor f the focus are known
the exact interpretation of completion state is the open referred to and that jackendoff treated with his d subscript
we believe that the ideas from clls tie in quite easily with various other semantic formalisms such as and mrs which use dominance relations similar to ours and also with theories of logical form associated with gb style grammars such
word sense ambiguity is shown to produce only minor effects on retrieval accuracy apparently confirming that query document matching strategies already perform an implicit disambiguation
these results are in agreement but it remains the question of whether the conceptual distance matching would scale up to longer documents and queries
only consider nouns while wordnet offers the chance to use all open class words nouns verbs adjectives and adverbs
for instance manually expanded NUM queries over a trec NUM using synonymy and other semantic relations from wordnet NUM NUM
a search in a word graph was conducted using the extended dynamic programming technique
see for comparisons en the use of different speech acts by americana and japanese
the translation contains only NUM NUM words tagged with ldoce senses although this is a reasonable size for an evaluation corpus given this type of task it is several orders of magnitude larger than those used by
there is also good evidence from our earlier wsd system that this approach works well despite the part of speech tagging errors that system s results improved by NUM using this strategy achieved NUM correct disambiguation to the ldoce homograph using this strategy but only NUM without it
however it is fair to compare our work against other approaches which have attempted to disambiguate all content words in a text against some standard lexical resource such as and
however there have also been deeper problems about evaluation which has led sceptics to question the whole wsd enterprise for example that it is harder for subjects to assign one and only one sense to a word in context and hence the produce the test material itself than to perform other nlp related tasks
to verify that our results are not an artifact of the particular grammar we chose for testing we also tested using a treebank grammar
NUM previous work in an earlier version of this paper we presented the results for several of these models using our original grammar
investigated collaboration on referring expressions of objects copresent with the dialogue participants
although we have not addressed here the problem of selecting appropriate properties for use in proceedings of eacl NUM referential descriptions it is worth noting that since this selection depends on the current state of the knowledge base it can also be performed before the search phase of generation the results of the selection algorithm being saved in the form of additional bespoke rules
proc compare a b for each non terminal node x in a search node y in b such that yield x yield y if y exists emit different labels if any if y does not exist annotation a with annotation b of the same sentence presents a method of comparing the structure of context free trees found in different annotations
report that for a hand selected category their algorithm generally produces NUM to NUM correct entries
semantic expansion based on wordnet NUM NUM makes it possible to retrieve words by synonyms hypernyms and other relations not simply by exact matches
in it is shown that memory based and back off type methods are closely related which is mirrored in the performance levels
these points were then splined to obtain a likelihood function fig NUM see and normalized to obtain a probability density
in newbold prior expectations for each stratum are combined with pre null sample results to create a posterior densiry for each stratum
the relation between bunsetsu called dependency is described by a stochastic context free on the classes
and xiandai hanyu are important chinese resources and have been widely used in various chinese processing systems e.g.
we use the kappa coefficient k to measure stability and reproducibility among k annotators on n items in our experiment the items are sentences
to analyze these patterns we cars creating a research space model as our starting point
the isomorphism in the s tag reflects this by effectively adopting the single level domain of locality extended slightly in cases of bounded subderivation but still effectively a single level in the way that context free trees are fundamentally made from single level components and grown by concatenation of these single levels
the jumping context approach in
the characteristics of tags make them better suited to describing natural language than context free grammars cfgs cfgs are not adequate to describe the entire syntax of natural while tags are able to provide structures for the constructions problematic for cfgs and without a much greater generative capacity
an application proposed concurrently with the definition of s tag was that of machine translation mapping between english and french abeill work continues in the area for example using s tag for english korean machine translation in a practical system
it is clearly the case that the trees in the tree pair c NUM are not elementary trees in the same way that on esp re que is not represented by a single elementary tree in both cases such single elementary trees would violate the condition on elementary tree
in many practical uses of spoken language technology like using simple structured dialogues for class room instruction as can be done with the cslu toolkit corpus based language modeling may not be a practical possibility
null briscoe has pointed out that using stochastic context free grammars scfgs as the basis for language modeling means that information about the probability of a rule applying at a particular point in a parse derivation
in the minds system reported reduced word error rates and large reductions in perplexity by using a dialogue structure that could track the active goals topics and user knowledge possible in a given dialogue state and use that knowledge to dynamically create a semantic case frame network whose transitions could in turn be used to constrain the word sequences allowed by the recognizer
as have shown the competition sets can be made dependent on the composition operation
the evaluation we are considering typically takes the form of experiments in which human subjects are asked to annotate texts from a corpus or recordings of spoken conversations according to a given classification scheme and the agreement among their annotations is measured see for example or the papers
attempts at making this intuition more precise familiarity theory presuppositional theory of definite descriptions location theory and its revision clark theory of definite reference and mutual knowledge as well as more formal proposals
theories of definite descriptions identify two subtasks involved in the interpretation of a definite description deciding whether the definite description is related to an antecedent in the text4 which in turn may involve recognizing fairly fine grained distinctions and if so identifying this antecedent
for instance the complex syntactic expression casser du sucre sur le dos de quelqu un literally break some sugar on this distinction between compounds and idioms is also somebody s back is essentially synonymous with criticize
the intuitions behind centering theory may be useful here
in fact in a number of experiments we found that naive subjects do not accept coreference in the kind of pronoun name sequences that played a critical role in motivating the construct of c command
muc message understanding conference by arpa is in colved in doing this kind of
the alignment a j that we use is the viterbi alignment of an hmm alignment model similar to
the use of leaving one out in a modified optimization criterion as in could in principle solve this problem
these methods were applied to discussion type newsgroups and the www
the eutrans i corpus is a subtask of the traveller task which is an artificially generated spanish english corpus
sfg maintains that there are four different kinds of syntagmatic
the described method to determine bilingual word classes is an extension and improvement of the method mentioned in
therefore mono lingually optimized word classes do not seem to be useful for machine translation see also
an account of the process is also given in chapter2
large lexical databases such as wordnet are in common research use
in we argue that mapping a word into word senses or wordnet synsets is strongly related to that problem
NUM overview of the system the disambiguation system is integrated in euslem a lemmatiser tagger for basque
other works describe systems that induce structures from corpora but they use tagged or grammatical or work with artificial
we use morfeus a robust morphological analyser for basque developed at the university of the basque country
if a stopping convergence criterion is satisfied stop otherwise go to step NUM we use the criterion of stopping when there are no more changes although more sophisticated heuristic procedures may also be used to stop relaxation processes
comparing the results of with ours we see that they achieve NUM NUM recall combining NUM NUM NUM NUM
several lexical resources and techniques are combined in to map spanish words from a bilingual dictionary to wordnet and in the use of the taxonomic structure derived from a monolingual mad is proposed as an aid to this mapping process
more information on constraints and their application can be found in daud
members of our research group are currently working on event tracking
the rule formalism for intonation is an implementation based on the intonation theory of t
of course there are some other approaches to constructing a committee for decision tree
research topics evolution and transformation can be traced through a chronological analysis of clustered term
beach demonstrated that hearers can use intonational information early on in sentence processing to help resolve syntactic ambiguities
guardian in a story about mad cow disease NUM
the book by presents a comprehensive exposition of dependency syntax
the advantage of a discourse grammar over a completely plan based dialogue structure is the seperate representation of possible moves dialogue acts in and the content of the discourse
in other nlp based systems like herr kommissar and lingo the dialogue with the system either allows only single question answer exchanges or is strongly embedded into the respective scenario
most to the performance of a pos tagger since the baseline performance of assigning the most likely pos for each word produces NUM
we measured the judges agreement on the annotation task using the kappa coefficient which is the ratio of the proportion of times p a that k raters agree to the proportion of times p e that we would expect the raters to agree by chance cf
the texts used for training and testing for the spanish wsd experiments were also examined for metonymies produced as part of the semantic analysis process
instead of using this limited context to pinpoint the exact supertag we postulate that it may be used to predict certain fectively shares the computation associated with each lexicalized elementary tree supertag is described in
and use grammatical relations to rank the cf i.e. subj obj but state that other factors might also play a role
the model has been motivated with evidence from preferences for the antecedents of pronouns and has been applied to pronoun resolution inter alia whose interpretation differs from the original model
we consider three voting strategies suggested by van equal vote where each classifier s vote is weighted equally overall accuracy where the weight depends on the overall accuracy of a classifier and pair wise voting
my proposal is inspired by the centering model and draws on the conclusions of strube approach for the ranking of the forward looking center list for german
and a consistency or tightness constraint not discussed here that pcfgs estimated from tree banks using the relative frequency estimator always satisfy
1awhile the latter set was obtained post hoc using the known web it is conceivable to approximate this biased selection when fairly reliable confidence annotations from the speech recognizer are
we obtain a complete tag probability distribution by using the forwards backwards algorithm and eliminate only those tags whose probability falls below a certain threshold
recent research has termed this underspecification see e.g.
lever p NUM for instance claims exactly this by saying that information to be expressed should be arranged according to the natural ordering of its content
as a result the common practice adopted for example in and comlex syntax macleod et al forthcoming is to enumerate and name the possible subcategorizations where in general each subcategorization represents a fixed sequence of syntactic elements
for the extraction problem there have been various methods proposed to date which are quite adequate utsuro
adding athe results of brill s method on the present benchmark were reconstructed by
pronominal reference to literal and real referents is regulated by their scope which distinguishes referential from predicative kinds of metonymy
in this paper we discuss rose an interactive approach to robust interpretation developed in the context of the janus speech to speech translation system
here the is composed of NUM NUM descriptors but only single word terms found in the corpus agro are used in this evaluation NUM NUM descriptors
though discourse processing is not essential to the rose approach discourse information has been found to be useful in robust
then the resulting meaning representation structure is mapped onto a sentence in the target language using genkit with a sentence level generation grammar
we have employed them in exploring the language theoretic complexity of theories in and and have used these model theoretic interpretations as a uniform framework in which to compare these
this can be done by smoothing the observed frequencies NUM or by class based methods pereira dagan
where pr NUM i is estimated from the frequency of NUM in the entire corpus and pr wi i NUM from the frequency of wi in the training set given the examples of the current ambiguous word w cf gale church
in contrast to nonmonotonic deletion or epenthesis x is a surface true 93f
the lnre framework offers the means suitable for the present study
in the algorithm the scanning component also deals with epsilon productions
has shown that doing so also aids in identifying speech repairs and intonational boundaries in spontaneous speech
at run time the parse proceeds in a strictly breadth first manner figure NUM
profer deals with ambiguity by splitting the branches of its graph structured stack as is done in a generalized left right
for reports that his word to word model for translational equivalence produced lexicon entries with NUM precision and NUM recall when trained on NUM million words of the hansard corpus where recall was measured as the fraction of words from the bitext that were assigned some translation
within computational linguistics several centering algorithms have been proposed most notably by brennan s m iedman walker and more recently by which reflect these various perspectives
argues that c0 is an unordered setof backward looking centers in terms of classical discourse representation theory notions of familiarity compatibility and with an additional constraint that the set of discourse referents are attentionally accessible a notion taken from
when comb med with the powerful discourse structural framework of the linguistic discourse prfist h tl scha and m po u l and m h
in particular the grammatical hierarchy with subjects ranking higher than objects grosz topic or empathy marking kameyama NUM NUM surface order or grammatical function brennan of the encoding of discourse entities in the immediately preceding segment
walker also replaces a unique ct with a set of possible backward looking centers computed from a set of possible forward looking centers using agreement features selection constraints of the verb and contra indexing conditions
the places hypotheticals on separate minicharts which can attach into other mini charts where combinations are 1in effect hypotheticals belong on additional suborderings which can connect into the main ordering of the chart at various positions generating a branching multi dimensional ordering scheme
we show how to produce an item based description of a prefix parser
there are also books by and
age i oogara na large name i NUM physique vj character these types of adjectives can appear both in the predicative position and in the attributive position without changing their
veins of child nodes are computed recursively according to the rules described by
abney proposes a markov random field or log linear model for subgs and the models described here are instances of abney s general framework
we will show that by substituting other semirings we can get values analogous to the outside probabilities for any commutative semiring we have shown that we can get similar values for many noncommutative semirings as well
the formalism is that of henceforth c r mother non heads head non heads freq the rules are head marked with a prime
for english a number of methods have been proposed to cope with real word errors in spelling
provide an initial formalization of the tdfs framework henceforth l c describe the version of default unification assumed in the informal outline of the tdfs formalism that follows
the verbmobil corpus consists of spontaneously spoken dialogs in the domain of appointment
several authors have highlighted the importance of using defaults in the representation of linguistic knowledge in order to get linguistically adequate descriptions for some natural language phenomena
according to essentially these forms of verbs express the coordination and cooccurrence of two events
NUM it has been noted eg that certain types of tex s such as news articles technical reports research papers etc conform to a set of style and organization constraints called the discourse macro structure dms which help the author to achieve a desired communication effect
for p NUM has questioned the necessity of the syntactic level altogether
as cohen claimed that it is useful to understand referring expressions from the viewpoint of speech act it is not so ridiculous to go one step further and to consider the entire sequence of actions including attention shifts as an instance of a plan for object referring
transformation based learning tbl is a machine learning approach for rule learning
were also used by in the evaluation of their system
one well known trainable systems satz is described in
classes are produced by clustering techniques based on similar word or similar distributional
in the platform presented in this paper term normalization is performed by fastr a shallow transformational parser which uses linguistic knowledge about the possible morpho syntactic transformations of canonical terms
this system is built on previous work on automatic extraction of hypernym links through shallow
the second mode corresponds to the synsets in or to the semantic data provided by the information extractor
the first mode corresponds to synonymy links in a dictionary or to generic specific links in a thesaurus such
the noun class data was derived from the wordnet which was compiled for general linguistic purposes irrespective of the ppa problem
for a proposal on how to solve this over generation problem see
first candidate referents can be ranked on the basis of accessibility c b
the overall interpretation is likely to be coherent hi
a good recent overview of previous approaches can be found in chapters NUM and NUM
describe this transformation as adding pseudo context sensitivity to the language model because the distribution of expansions of a node depends on nonlocal context viz the category of its parent
this paper presents an investigation into the extent to which the edol reduces the need for feature passing in two existing wide coverage grammars the xtag and the lexsys grammar
gordon showed similar patterns in relative reading times for cases of both intersentential and intrasentential coreference
our findings make english look more similar to the survey of crosslinguistic variation in pronounquantified np
also found this kind of corroboration
since their inception the productivity of some types of lexical rule has been an issue
however there are numerous dialogue strategies that an agent might use e.g. to gather information handle errors or manage the dialogue interaction
several reinforcement learning algorithms based on dynamic programming specify a way to calculate u si in terms of the utility of a successor state
it provides an analysis for simple and complex verb second verb first and verb last sentences with scrambling in the mittelfeld extraposition phenomena wh movement and topicalization integrated verb first parentheticals and an interface to an illocution theory as well as the three kinds of infinitive constructions coherent incoherent thirdconstruction nominal phrases and adverbials
NUM the first binyan carries the meaning of the root and is unmarked morphologically while other binyanim bring modification to the meaning and to the pattern of vowels and consonants though the modification in meaning is not systematic and not always predictable
simulated annealing and deterministic annealing
introduction while bilingual text corpora have been part of the computational linguistics scene for over ten years now we have recently witnessed the appearance of text corpora containing versions of texts in three or more languages such as those developed within the crater multext and multext east projects
in this cgi application implemented in prolog see cbg1999 the following functionality is provided NUM display alter add to the current nondeterministic fsa descriptions
he uses the term explanation graph or egraph for his representation relating
NUM these definitions are high level schematics of grosz formal definitions
argues against such a separation on philosophical grounds practical constraints suggest as indicated above that the domain expert responsible for implementing the reasoning system shouldnot also be responsibl e for implementing the explanation capability and that the communication engineer responsible for implementing the explanation facility should not need to replicate domain reasoning
in the reconstructive explainer rex the expert system is un null changed but after it has performed its reasoning a causal chain for explanation is constructed from the input data to the conclusion reached previously by the expert system as a separate process
call the defining words in the ldoce definition semantic primitives sp and suggest that a semantic network constructed on the strength of co occurrence of sps in definitions can be useful for a variety of nlp tasks ranging from wsd to machine translation to message understanding
roorda also described proofnets for lambek calculus
in this research we use the following NUM features including the composition information of the whole image in addition to the form and color of the region that is used with conventional image retrieval
on the other hand satoh et al use the gaussian distribution in r g b space in their face detection system because this model is more sensitive to brightness of skin color
based on this theory there are four features which are critical in deciding the f0 contour the placement of intonational or intermediate phrase boundaries break index NUM and NUM in tobi annotation convention the tonal type at these boundaries the phrase accent and the boundary tone and the f0 local maximum or minimum the pitch accent
attempting to learn morphology in languages with rich morphology raises quite different problems from those discussed in the work above issues discussed if rather naively and unsatisfactorily from a computational viewpoint in earlier work
it may not even be unrealistic NUM for a general defense of assuming some form of semantic bootstrapping NUM who for arguments for the learning of word meanings before gaining a productive understanding of them it appears that the use of inflections in amalgams is stabilized semantically before these amalgams are analyzed morphologically
contextual grammars were as intrinsic grammars without auxiliary symbols based only on the fundamental linguistic operation of inserting words in given phrases according to certain contextual dependencies
examples of natural language constructions based on reduplication were found for instance whereas crossed dependencies were demonstrated for swiss see also partee ter or a number of contributions to
reported on a sentence extraction approach called the automarie news extraction system or anes
indeed contextual grammars in the many variants considered in the literature were investigated mainly from a mathematical point of view see p un and their references
an inflected word was reduced to its stem by lookup in a lexicon comprising inflection and stem word pair records e.g.
we chose three clusters produced by a program similar to except that it is based on a generative probability model and tries to classify all nouns rather than just those in pre selected clusters
as an example a text segmentation algorithm based on word repetition alone attained inferior precision and recall rates of NUM NUM and NUM NUM
and extracted related text portions by matching high frequency terms
precise definitions examples explanations and the proof of the following theorem may be
this paper presents a logical formalization of tree adjoining grammar tag joshi
for instance it can be used to speed up conventional chart parsers because it reduces the ambiguity which a parser must face as
it is essentially this last approach that the current prototype has adopted and to this extent it resembles the speechmania system developed by philips which has already been used successfully to implement a speech based timetable enquiry system for swiss federal railways
prc inc was the systems engineering and configuration management se cm contractor for the tipster program phases
for instance the senses of star are divided into three roget s categories which roughly correspond to five ldoce star senses labeled with lloce topics
according to observations in psycholinguistic research embedded clauses in subjects are a major obstacle to
prince studied in detail the connection between a speaker writer s assumptions about the hearer reader and the linguistic realization of
NUM implementation two step sentence generation with moose the moose sentence generator grew out of experiences with building the techdoc system which produces instructional text in multiple languages from a common representation
computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM on a similar describes the locatum subject alternation which for instance holds between i filled the pail with water and water filled the pail
in our case the bagging approach was performed following the constructing NUM replicates for each data set NUM
the solution presented which sorts a list of one edit distance words considering the context in which it will be placed is inaccurate because the context itself might include some errors
penman and spl are based on the upper model um introduced NUM fr6hlich and describe how moose is employed in the generation component of an information system
fs18379 qual value fs18379 in fs18379 NUM e3 cdm personiontext fs18561 fs196011484224
in particular kautz assumes a model of keyhole recognition cohen in which one agent is observing another agent without that second agent s knowledge
in addition they have to address the problem of expressibility of the selected contents in a text realization component i.e. bridging the generation gap
NUM these requirements and those to follow for collaborative plans omit the case present in grosz work of one agent contracting an act to another
another effective technique to speed up training is motivated observation that the benefit of using rules that only occurred once in training is marginal
this avoids the problems of order dependence of processing that for example get by interleaving two formalisms for scope and for ellipsis resolution
the use of different representations is claimed as a good way of overcoming dialect biases during transcription
a description of the precise mechanism to do this can be found in
human communication is characterized by distinct discourse structure which is used for a variety of purposes including managing interaction between participants mitigating limited attention and signaling topic shifts
this result has recently been critizised to apply only to impoverished dgs which do not properly represent formally the expressivity of contemporary dg variants
there have been many studies on efficient described
throughout this paper we adopt the abbreviatory notation from where indefensible de feasible is abbreviated to indefeasible if indefeasible defensible and t defeasible is abbreviated to defensible
an important benefit is that the proposal is lexicalized without reverting to lexical ambiguity to represent order variation thus profiting even more from the efficiency considerations discussed by
in contrast the dependency relation is taken to be primitive here and ordering restrictions are taken to be indicators or consequences of dependency relations
in most cases the collect module determines an lpa by enumerating all antecedents in a window of text that pleced es the anaphor under
prob null lematic issues in spoken dialog include the determination of the center of attention in multiparty discourse utterances with no discourse entities abandoned or partial utterances interruptions speech repa rs the determination of utterance boundaries the high frequency of discourse deictic and vague anaphora
we trained decision trees with the c4 type algorithm while using these features in all possible combinations as attributes
where incremental vs scalar rstages are introduced
uses lexicon for initial annotation of the training corpus where each word in the lexicon has a set pos tags seen for the word in the training corpus
these patterns are used to inform algorithms for various subproblems within natural language processing such as part of speech tagging word sense disambiguation and bilingual dictionary
shows several ways in which lexical forms of words may be constructed full listing minimal listing methods with unique lexical forms and methods with phonologically distinct stem variants
tree description grammars tdgs were inspired by so called
in order to provide an underspecified representation for discourse structure
this paper proposes an optimality theory ot based generator of the interlanguage il i syllabification of korean speakers of english
yet there have been few attempts to learn fine grained lexical classifications from the statistical analysis of distributional data analogously to the induction of syntactic knowledge though see e.g.
in fact participants in that competition from the university of durham and from report that gazetteers did not make that much of a difference to their system
for our supervised learning experiments we used the publicly available version of the c5 NUM machine learning algorithm NUM a newer version of c4 which generates decision trees from a set of known classifications
basic procedures such as rely on function word deletion stemming and alphabetical word reordering
the disambiguation is performed by a corpus based method which relies on endogenous learning
because these verbs can occur both in a transitive and an intransitive form they have been particularly studied in the context of the main verb reduced relative mv rr ambiguity illustrated the horse raced past the barn fell
the same can be said for crafting the rich lexical representations that are a central component of linguistic knowledge and research in automatic lexical acquisition has sought to address this among others
baker extended the work of baum and his colleagues to pcfgs including to computation of the outside values or reverse inside values in our terminology
in addition took into account a user s possible inferences in generating concise discourse
since first reported in we have not continued experiments using this model of supertagging primarily for two reasons
would provide a debugger in which the grammar writer could perform an instantiation and view the results perhaps in an animated fashion
proof presentation is realized within the mathematical assistant NUM nega an interactive environment for proof development
we have developed on the basis a treatment of diagrams in used to construct figure NUM
describe experiments of inducing english cg rules intended more as a help for the grammarian rather than as an attempt to induce a full scale cg
this layer is reminiscent of the independent anaphora resolution modules in the lucy system except that modules in that system were not designed to be easily turned on or off
is a system working on morphologically analyzed text that contains lexical ambiguities
hepple introduces first order compilation for implicational linear logic and shows how that method can be used with labeling as a basis parsing implicational categorial systems
encoding in the lexicon the event result reading distinction for a nominalisation is straightforward when using a conceptual dictionary like it s enough to search up in the hierarchy
the semantic contribution of a lexical anchor includes both what it presupposes and what it asserts
used a back off model which enables them to take low frequency effects into account on the ratnaparkhi dataset with good results
three out of seven or NUM are also sometimes deemed sufficient NUM
following are two organizations for each selection method
the language clls has recently been developed which correctly generates the well formed readings by using dominance constraints over trees
the lexicalized probabilistic grammar for german used is described in
the probability model we use can be found earlier in
in feature structure based grammars NUM such as hpsg ambiguity is expressed not only by manually tailored disjunctive feature structures but also by enumerating non disjunctive feature structures
note that the first case of concept givenness is the only kind of givenness distinguished in d2s which can also be determined in a relatively easy way in unrestricted text to speech systems e.g.
points out the same problem and proposes a compilation method for feature structures called modularization
the key functions of ete are described below manage test resources ete provides an graphical interface to manage various resources needed for tests including corpora nle versions and parameter settings and connections to linguistic servers
this method creates a richer sdefiuition introduced in halliday and and structure useful for the al duction of coherer e relations from the knowledge encoded in wordnet
there already exist algorithms for choosing the proper determiner with fairly high
the same claim is made in where algorithm approximating rap for poorer syntactic input obtain precision of NUM and NUM respectively a surprising small precision decay from rap s NUM
the few attempts that have been made in parsing with sfg
one such proposal for the german nonfinal group is made in
an example of overlap is shown below as seen in figure NUM and explained more fully in overlap carries no impli cations for the internal structure of speaker turns or for the position of turn boundaries
this section is a brief summary of the strand system and previously reported preliminary
NUM costs and benefits as reiter and mellish note the use of shallow techniques needs to be justified through a cost benefit analysis
there are several typ null ical patterns for organization names and people s names dates and places
galois ulysses is a lattice based classification system and the user can browse information on the lattice produced by the existence of keywords
for example suppose an ocp has some reason to expect the end of a segment based on a linguistic signal such as an intonational feature e.g. as described by grosz
chart parsing is described extensively in the literature for one such discussion see section
a more formal description of the cpcl method can be
in most previous accounts see for example and russell default unification is an asymmetric operation that combines two ordinary t fss one of which is treated briscoe and copestake lexical rules as default and one nondefault to produce a normal tfs
in addition we wish to study how additional attitudes to clustering e.g. the one described by are related to our setting
in any case if these rules only apply to the output of the lexicon this will avoid the increase in generative capacity resulting from the interaction of recursion arbitrary list operations and unbounded lists by keeping list valued features bounded during lexical rule application and only allowing unbounded additions to or limited modification of such features during syntactic processing
computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM the frequency with which a given word form is associated with a particular lexical entry i.e. sense or grammatical realization is often highly skewed point out that a model of part of speech assignment in context will be NUM accurate for english if it simply chooses the lexically most frequent part of speech for a given word
lascarides copestake present an account of the dative alternation that illustrates the utility of the tdfs framework for encoding defeasible lexical semantic entailments in terms proto thematic roles and the interac null NUM we omit a formal proof as this would require more detailed specification of the syntactic component than is warranted in the rest of the paper
the sequence of evaluation is the normal order which corresponds to reducing the leftmostoutermost redex first
it is known to be computationally tractable but less efficient than the polynomial time ccg algorithm of
the combinators in this form may arise from the ccg schema i.e. the compositor b and the substitutor
grammar rewriting can be done using predictive but they can not handle crossing compositions that are essential to our method
they range from dictionary based approaches that rely on definitions v to corpus based approaches that use only word co occurrence frequencies extracted from large textual corpora
for nlp finite state calculi this is unacceptable
backreferencing is widely used in editors scripting languages and other tools employing regular
recent advances in the development of sophisticated tools for building finite state systems e.g. xrce finite state tools atgzt tools have fostered the development of quite complex finite state systems for natural language processing
these sets consist of the elements of prince s familiarity p NUM
consists of three basic steps NUM generate possible cb cfcombinations
a similar analysis was done in the preparational phase of the verbmobil project
information theory and statistics is a measure of distance between two distributions e.g.
first we will discuss the accentuation algorithm which is based on a version of focus accent theory proposed and dirksen
martin noted that a span of NUM words on left nnd right sides captures NUM of significant collo ations in
luperfoy does not present a corpus study meaning that statistics about the distribution of individual and abstract object anaphora or about the success rate of her approach are not available
in the established that a set of strings was regular iff it was definable in the weak monadic second order theory of the natural numbers with successor ws1s
this when coupled with the characterization of gives us our descriptive characterization of tals a set of strings is generated by a tag modulo the iff it is the string yield of a set of NUM tm definable in wsnt3
for instance suggest allowing multiple adjunctions of modifier trees to the same node on the grounds that selectional constraints hold between the modified node and each of its modifiers but if only a single adjunction may occur at the modified node only the first tree that is adjoined will actually be local to that node
one of the problems of rule based translation has been the idiomatic expression which has been dealt mainly with syntactic grammar rules mary keeps up with her brilliant classmates and i prevent him from going there are simple examples of uninterupted and interupted idiomatic expressions expectively
al processing of non continuous idiomatic expressions generation of korean sentence style reduction or ranking of too many ambiguities in english syntactic analysis robust processing for failed or ill formed sentences selecting correct word correspondency between several alternatives the problems result in dropping a translation assessment such as fidelity intelligibility and style
however a pilot study reported in has found it necessary to use arithmetic constraints to do so again transcending finite state power
clustering can be done statistically by analyzing text corpora and usually results in a set of words or word senses
unlike the method derived from the lr k parsing algorithm described in these methods use grammar transformations based on the left corner grammar transform rosenkrantz
other vocalizations are defined similarly given the definitions above xfst will evaluate the expressions on the left below indicating the intersection of a root a pattern and a vocalization and return a language consisting of the single string on the right an interdigitated but still morphophonemic
this can be seen as a generalization of the one to one assumption for word to word translation and is exploited for the same purpose i.e. to exclude large numbers of candidate alignments when good initial alignments have been found
stolcke showed how to use the same techniques to compute inside probabilities for earley parsing dealing with the difficult problems of unary transitions and the more difficult problems of epsilon transitions
finite state approaches to morphology including the readily available implementation known as two level have been shown to work in significant projects for french english spanish portuguese italian finnish turkish and a wide variety of other natural languages
were apparently the first to understand that concatenating languages were just a special case they showed that by generalizing lexicography to allow regular expressions semitic specifically akkadian roots and patterns could denote regular languages and that stems could be computed as the intersection of these regular languages
the corpus has atready been used for text classification by
in technical documentation the quality of the text in terms of completeness correctness consistency readability and user frlend hess is a central
in we have argued that it is important to distinguish between two levels of discourse structure and processing global and local
a first prototype with these capabilities achieved an overall recall of NUM and precision of NUM when tested on our corpus
some proposals of a systematic treatment for the identification of anchor linking relations for bridging dds
since typed feature structures tfss are the basic data structures in hpsg the efficiency of handling tfss has been considered as the key to improve the efficiency of an hpsg parser
belief goals are used to build the content of an argument as in much other nlg work saliency goals to express the intention to convey information to the hearer following a notion of saliency similar to that and topic manipulation goals to control the focus of attention through the discourse
this is why we also asked five experts to classify independently the produced translations into three categories being the same as in correct translations are grammatical and convey the same meaning as the input
primitives of otp without reference to ad hoc tiers and proposes a formalization of these constraints that is compatible with the finite state model
however for certain types of constraints translation into the primitives of can only be accomplished by adding to the grammar a number of ad hoc phonological tiers
although several projects have focused on the question of how such intelligent graphical presentations can be automatically generated they have not addressed the problem of generating the accompanying textual explanations
nakaiwa et al also propose the method which is based on semantic and pragmatic constraints
proposes a similar approach in which several pragmatic constraints are used to determine referents of zero pronouns
computational attempts at such discourse level and knowledge level summarization include ono and
to ensure that our coding scheme leads to less biased annotation than some of the other resources available for building summarisation systems and to ensure that other researchers besides ourselves can use it to replicate our results on different types of texts we wanted to examine two properties of our scheme stability and
recently have studied some formal properties of dependency grammar observing that gaifman s conception is not compatible either with tesnibre s original formulation or with the current variants of dg
his ideas n ere repeated developed and precised by y lecer p l hirschbe and l lynch particularly by studying syntactic projectivity and linguistic subtrees
the classical studies of the formal properties of dependency NUM which demonstrate that dependency grammar of the given type is weakly equivalent to the class of context free phrase structure grammars
for example discussed the problem at length and defined a restriction for discontiguous constituents NUM wells restriction implies that a discontiguous sequence can be a constituent only if it appears as a contiguous sequence in another context
the university of waterloo interactively searched the training data for co occurring substrings and ge ran major experiments in data fusion to test their new stream based architecture
for example a project involving four teams led by tomek strzalkowski has continued the investigation of merging results from multiple streams of input using different indexing methods
the okapi system from city university london continued its experiments in repeatedly trying various combinations of terms to discover the optimal set but for trec NUM used subsets of the training data
more recently experiments with NUM word multigrams embedded in a deterministic variable ngram scheme were reported
NUM sentences brants skut
they are compared with the results produced by juman s part of speech information and the average scores in met1 reported
because the system of makes multiple decisions at each token they could assign multiple possibly inconsistent tags
a fundamental component of reporting what source does the reporter give for his information
nlc a the analysis of concepts that play a role in natural language nl ca the lattice the karaphuis and sarbo NUM natural language concept analysis v kamphuis natural language concept analysis
previous studies like have pointed out that the use of a multiple information source can contribute to better segmentation and tagging and so our statistical model integrates linguistic acoustic and situational information
NUM note however that although l c conjecture that deffs is worst case has developed an algorithm that is efficient even for cases where the tail is large in proportion to the indefeasible structure and where complex reentrancies are involved
this probability is estimated by a probabilistic decision tree and we have p bw wx i hi w p bw NUM i ee hj w where ripe is a decision tree that categorizes hj w into equivalent
the literature e.g. ostendorf already indicates the usefulness of intonational information for syntactic processing
as a result the equation is untyped and can not be solved by huet s
NUM however there exists a certain type of english sentence that is there is a man in the room
kim have been proposed
another important aspect in automatic translation of pronouns as consists on the application of two possible techniques translation or reconstruction of referential expressions
much research in ct has concentrated on interpretation particularly reference resolution developing algorithms to resolve anaph0ric expressions based on the assumption that the text is constructed according to rules NUM and NUM so researchers have focussed on filling in de tails of the theory which were left unspecified what counts as an utterance and how should transitions be handled in
in our experiments we used cross validation to choose the number of rounds t after t rounds multiply instead by exp yioetht xi where at e is a parameter that needs to be set
an immediate problem arises and others have argued the rule is semiproductive rather than purely abbreviatory in the sense that nonce usages are clearly interpreted conventionally as being novel mis applications of such rules
semantic information is also employed in predicting accent patterns for complex nominal
graph unification based on the union find algorithm has time complexity that is near linear in the number of feature structure nodes in the however feature structures in wide coverage grammars can contain hundreds of nodes see e.g. hpsg and since unification is a primitive operation the overall number of unification attempts during parsing can be very large
the performance of ripper is comparable with most benchmark rule induction systems such as c4
they are used more widely in the definitions of a whole family of causal and argumentative coherence relations
to verify this claim we aligned the l pos pairs of the verbmobil corpus using the completely language independent method of
previous work in natural language generation has proposed heuristics to determine an agent s choice of dialogue strategy based on factors such as discourse focus medium style and the content of previous
successful completion of a scenario requires that all attributevalues must be exchanged
we draw on the recently proposed paradise evaluation framework to identify the important performance factors and to provide a performance function for calculating the utility of the final state of a dialogue
previous work has also proposed that an agent s choice of dialogue strategy can be treated as a stochastic optimization
meaning text theory assumes seven strata of representation
designed a system to detect the root of any arabic word along with morphological patterns and word categories
t a sryf is the total range of morphological patterns used with a given
to represent the arabic character set we used the nafitha software developed by NUM system manama
argues that standard semantic relations such as synonymy paraphrase redundancy and entailment all result from judgments of likeness whereas antonymy contradiction and inconsistency derive from judgments of difference
this seems to contradict standard logic but we show in section NUM that some logical formalisms namely a fragment of the lambek calculus lc first introduced can handle adjunction
roots and patterns are at compile time to yield NUM NUM stems
pattern notation uses a g symbol before the c slot that needs to be doubled
5see for example the for handling the limited reduplication seen in tagalog
onstructed collocations by combining adjacent n grams with high value of mutual information
yang et al develop a real time face tracking system and they propose an adaptive skin color model under different lighting condition based on the fact that its distribution under a certain lighting condition can be characterized by a multivariate gaussian distribution
for this firstly we analyze texts of news articles with morphological analyzer juman version NUM NUM to extract the part of speech tags as the features in machine learning
we calculate the mean intensity m g rcb t variance covariance matrix v and mahalanobis distance d from skin color data of 5pixel x 5pixel blocks which are extracted from the cheek colored areas of NUM persons
in given new and topic structure are used to control intonational variation
this design involves a specific nlg module and an ss module often developed for the application where discourse semantic and syntactic information produced by the nlg module can be used directly by cts algorithms to determine either system specific parameters for a text to speech system or phonological parameters for a vocal tract model e.g.
when we test this on the set provided in we got a NUM accuracy for primary phrase boundary and we get an NUM accuracy for the utterances in
the source structures are represented in a kl one derived system and the parser that produces the corpus based lattice of realization types mtwo complete mature systems
smeaton proposed an expansion method using wordnet
multiple sentences were compared because calculating lexical similarity between words is too and between individual sentences is unreliable
i orange free green lemon peel red relation weights relation weights quantify the amount of semantic relation between words based on the lexical organization of rt
these metrics have tended to be adopted for the assessment of text segmentation algorithms but they do not provide a scale of correctness
lexical cohesion relations between words were identified in rt and used to construct lexical chains of related words in five texts
it was reported that the lexical chains closely correlated to the intentional structure of the texts where the start and end of chains coincided with the intention ranges
following this approach lai and huang in press describes a experimental parser adapted from the patr parser in
using mrds for word sense disambiguation was popularized
srinivas presents a two pass head trigram model
sacks and schegloff1973 and or philosophical theories e.g.
finally we briefly mention that this can also give a logical formalization
has shown that supertagging may be employed in information retrieval
the numbers of segments are NUM for manual NUM for manual and NUM for manual respectively
the verbmobil task is a speech translation task in the domain of appointment scheduling travel planning and hotel reservation
our results are similar to those of mitra mitra singhal but our system with the trainable combiner was able to outperform the lead sentence summaries
according to lezius rapp NUM of the tokens of a german text had only one lemma NUM
we identified NUM trec NUM topics classified by the easy hard retrieval schema of five as hard five as easy and the remaining twenty were randomly selected
sanderson used a technique previously introduced to evaluate word sense disambiguators
when generating referring expressions multiple factors should be considered which include centering theory and stylistic preferences such as avoiding too many repetitions
an interesting problem is the relation between embedding and entity based coherence which exists between spans of text in virtue of shared entities
it can serve multiple communicative goals including referring to an object providing new information about it and expressing the speaker s emotional attitude towards
additionally the problem of data sparseness is also addressed by applying a technique of generating convez
as a step toward a more fine grained distinction between participants and circumstances we adopt the three categories proposed by and thus distinguish between obligatory and optional participants on the one hand and circumstances on the other
thus generation becomes a matter of constraints say the right thing and preferences try to say it in a particular way similar distinction between prescriptive and restrictive planning
the most comprehensive source of information on alternations is the we will now look at some of the more prominent alternations listed there and characterize them in terms of changes in denotation and valency of the verbs
this contradicts the penman philosophy of viewing the um as abstract semantics and clearly distinct from the generation grammar which in accordance with systemic functional linguistics is an integrated lexicogrammar with lexis as most delicate
for generation our approach uses two distinct ontologies a language neutral domain model for event categorization and a language specific taxonomy the upper model developed by on the basis work
for the experiments reported here syntactic frames for the dative and benefactive alternations were automatically extracted from the bnc using gsearch a tool which facilitates search of arbitrary pos tagged corpora for shallow syntactic patterns based on a user specified contextfree grammar and a syntactic query
clause NUM of the definition indicates that an agent does not need a recipe to perform a basic level action i.e. one executable
thomas zukerman and raskutti NUM extracting phoneme pronunciation information ian thomas ingrid zukerman extracting phoneme pronunciatim information from corpora
for instance the grinding rule of copestake and briscoe for linking the systematic animal food polysemy as in mutton sheep or in french where we have a conflation in mouton allows us to link the entries in english and sub senses in french without having to cope with the semantic disjunction fallacy problem
employed entropy value to filter out fragments of the adjacent n gram model
in that respect this work differs from in that i do not suggest an ontology per language but argue on the contrary for one semantic hierarchy shared by all dictionaries
formally generalisation and specialisation can be done in various ways as specified for instance in
introduces the notion of vote entropy to quantify disagreements among members
the system was evaluated against two sets of texts artificially generated errors from the brown corpus and genuine spelling errors from the bank of englishl the remainder of this paper is organised as follows
yarowsky experiments with the use of decision lists for lexical ambiguity resolution using context features like local syntactic patterns and collocational information so that multiple types of evidence are considered in the context of an ambiguous word
off theshelf technology in the form of an sgml processor provides a simple mapping to the format required by the tokenizer
actually this formalism is able to deal a high degree of free word order for a comparable result see
have recently showed that the general recognition problem for non projective dependency grammars what they call discontinuous dg is np complete
and the interposition of a nucleus after a satellite blocks the accessibility of the satellite for all nodes that are lower in the corresponding discourse structure see for a full definition
there has been a lot of research following this line such as to only mention a few
indicating location manner time nesting depth of an n p an integer information status as of the de gender number animacy
the data used in this study is a collection of transcribed dialogues on a travel arrangement task between japanese and english speakers mediated by interpreters
discourse segmentation in linguistics whether manual or automatic has also received keen attention because such segmentation provides the foundation of higher discourse structures
the massive network of inverted semrel structures contained in mindnet invalidates the criticism leveled against dictionary based and that lkbs created from mrds provide spotty coverage of a language at best
these relation types may be contrasted with simple co occurrence statistics used to create network structures from dictionaries by researchers including and
for detailed evidence of this and for a tentative solution within gl to the problems raised by the polysemy of collective nouns e.g. regiment police and forest which exhibit a similar behavior i.e. can either refer to individuals or to collections
for labeled relations only a few researchers recently barri have appeared to be interested in entire semantic structures extracted from dictionary definitions though they have not reported extracting a significant number of them
i will leave aside the treatment of incremental patharguments referring the interested
owns a car inverted researchers who produced spreading activation networks from mrds including and typically only implemented forward links from headwords to their definition words in those networks
although the features deal with suprasentential structure the reported variables are identified via lexical information and shallow constituent parsing arguably not modeling the human process
ing discourse coherence finding malpropisms and word sense identify related word senses by means of links such as between super and subordinates
using the same model but less data a french english software manual of NUM NUM words reported NUM precision with NUM recall
the lexicon server is based on comlex a machine readable dictionary which was developed at new york university and distributed by the linguistic data consortium grishman
there the features i NUM are part features fore the features of the following words will depend on the output tags of the preceding words
the essence of the acquisition model is that there are discrete stages that all learners of a particular language will go
this is definitely a heuristic but it has been shown to be very useful for technical texts involving english and scandinavian where terms are often found in lists or
first we adopt an information based quantifying the information content ic of a word as the negative log likelihood of a word in a corpus
for example tf idf has been used in salton to index the words ini a document and is also implemented in which is a general purpose information retrieval package providing basic tools and libraries to facilitate information retrieval tasks
some of our previous work explored how language transfer might influence written english and suggested that negative language transfer might occur when the realization of specific language features differed between the first language and written english
ic was used to measure semantic similarity between words and it is shown to be more effective than traditional measurements of semantic distance within the wordnet hierarchy
it has been argued see for that asl allows topic np which means that topic noun phrases that are prominent in the discourse context may be left out of a sentence
in transformation based every word is first assigned an initial tag this tag is the most likely tag for a word if the word is known and is guessed based upon properties of the word if the word is not known
we call this type of subdialogue an information sharing subdialogue
in the fusion process is described at a high level of abstracion
we compare the new method with results obtained on czech previously as reported in and hajie
the coding scheme augments the damsl scheme by having some new top level tags and by further specifying some existing tags
for more detail definition of f score recall and precision
ksnig reports that a prolog implementation of her method running on a major workstation produces NUM edges in NUM seconds
this approach has been studied in
are taken from the scores of transformations and back off are taken from
since core s belief that dr lewis not having been given tenure and its belief in the evidential relationship that dr lewis not having been given tenure implies that he is not going on sabbatical constitute the only obstacle against its acceptance of on sabbatical lewis NUM reevaluate after invite attack figure NUM is selected as the subaction for share info reevaluate beliefs
this temporal constraint is based on empirical investigation of multimodal interaction
the application has been developed and tested for a car manufacturing
however in retrieval on a small collection of image captions that is on very short documents is reasonably improved using measures of conceptual distance between words based on wordnet NUM NUM
hepple shows how deductions in implicational linear logic can be recast as deductions involving only first order formulae using only a single inference rule a variant of o e
NUM grapheme entropy as measured by h the information statistic and previously used by treiman mullennix bijeljac babic
one important feature of our endeavor is the extraction of several quantitative graded measures of grapheme phoneme mappings see also bern reggia for similar work in american english
hepple presents a compilation method which allows for tabular deduction for implicational linear logic i.e. the fragment with only o
cussens describes a project in which cg inspired rules for tagging english text were induced using the progol machine learning system
it is based on shallow processing within the resources themselves exploiting their inter relatedness and does not rely on extensive statistical data e.g. as
our analysis of otherwise assumes a modal semantics where a sentence is asserted with respect to a set of possible worlds
in a recent paper published in an algorithm is described which aligns segments within a pair of words for the purpose of identifying historical cognates
the software system pdac phonological deviation analysis by computer uses a software package called lipp logical international phonetic programs for input
some of the best results on a comparable setting namely disambiguating against word net evaluating on a subset of the brown corpus and treating the NUM most frequently occurring and ambiguous words of english are reported reported
these constraints and preferences are described in more
amples provided by using transformation based learning
we trained decision lists using a supervised learning approach
we also report the result of experiments conducted on edr the corpus is divided into ten parts and the models estimated from nine of them axe tested on the rest in terms of cross entropy
the stochastic context free grammar used for syntactic analysis consists of rewriting rules see formula NUM in chom ky normal form except for the derivation from the start symbol formula NUM
this simple estimator as shown by assigns proper production probabilities for pcfgs
for a detailed version of the algorithm see brill s original
the spoken language translator slt becket et al forthcoming is a pipelined speech understanding system of the type assumed here
we inferred the bracketing by modifying an algorithm initially proposed by
for more detail see the original paper
currently used implementations of sfg are the penman system the kpml and
such computational methods were presented in
we now describe our normal form for parsers which is very similar to that used by shieber schabes
more specific indications concerning the structure of the relevant example and more in general of the conversations in the ilex corpus are given by rhetorical structure theory rst NUM although even with rst it is still possible to analyze any given text in many different ways
proposed an alternative model of the attentional state involving a cache instead of a stack argues that the cache model can account for all of the data that originally motivated the stack model and in addition explains the use of informationally redundant utterances
and finally keeping track of previous mses seems essential for bridging descriptions as well in order to find the reasons for the low performance of algorithms for resolving bridging descriptions entirely based on lexical knowledge examined the bridging descriptions their corpus to find out their preferred antecedent
unlike sidner s theory of the theory of the attentional state in henceforth g s does not include explicit provision for long distance pronominalisations although some of the necessary tools are potentially already there as we will see
we started with a set of rewrite rules given that we completed with other rules when required by a weak form from our corpus
few authors mention the possibility for atelic events to receive rss or do it incidentally
and others argue that it is a defining property of telic events
in this auto disambiguation investigation it will be interesting to determine whether a specialized corpus e.g. of photo captions performs sense tagging significantly better than a generalpurpose corpus such as the brown corpus francis and
this is essentially similar to the definition of pp
parenthetical unit boundaries in order to compute how well we agreed on determining the edu and parenthetical unit boundaries we used the kappa coefficient k a statistic used extensively in previous empirical studies of discourse
a typical task in these areas requires well developed capabilities of assessing similarity between text fragments see for example chapter
although we had a context sensitive lemmatizer for german available lezius rapp this was not the case for english so for reasons of symmetry we decided not to use the context feature
however despite serious efforts in the compilation of parallel corpora the availability of a large enough parallel corpus in a specific domain and for a given pair of languages is still an exception
this last condition of projectivity or various extensions of it see e.g. is usually assumed by most computational approaches to dependency grammars as a constraint for filtering configurations and has also been used as a simplifying condition in statistical approaches for inducing dependencies from corpora NUM
as an additional advantage the algorithm does not need to require the restriction that every auxiliary tree must have at least one terminal symbol in its frontier
these results are not very promising when compared with brill s results of english test corpora which have an accuracy of NUM NUM trained on NUM
at any time t during the annotation process annotators have access to two panels see figure NUM for an example the upper panel displays in the style of the discourse structure built up to time t
in order to know which categories the tagger failed to identify precision and recall were calculated for each part of speech category of the test
the motivation largely derives from the observation that focus though recognized as the meeting point of linguistics and artificial intelligence carrying significant discourse information closely related to prosody generation has nonetheless appeared evasive and intractable to formalization
i restrict inferrables to the particular subset defined by
they were based on mutual information conditional or on some standard statistical tests such as the chi square test or the log likelihood
one possibility is the notation of autosegmental phonology which can be compiled into finite state automata
discusses at length related examples involving collection referring nouns e.g. orchestra or regiment and shows that they behave similarly cf
the toot system is described in
NUM all data examined total number of sentences NUM total number of bunset su NUM
noted that there may be more than one good summary for a given document something that a key approach to evaluation does not capture
most of infants and children with autism do not show attention sharing being instructed by an experimenter however they can do
our preliminary study found that these tasks require some top down information like the object s relevance to the current context
the NUM NUM acceptability rate for general news documents is not appreciably different from the NUM average that reported
franz used a loglinear model for pp attachment
being unaware of others attention children with autism show typical disorders in verbal and nonverbal
for has devised an algorithm for learning decision trees
many of the possible co occurrences are not observed even in a very large corpus
we then create an r dimensional pseudo document vector d qu following the standard methodology of vector based information retrieval see
this hpsg is compiled into a tag grammar in an offtine pre processing step which keeps the declarative nature of the grammar intact section NUM
the tobi system labels prosodic prominence with a pitch accent type tone from a subset of pierrehumbert s
and separately for each group a and b only in high asr situation user satisfaction in table NUM was obtained as a cumulative satisfaction score for each dialogue by summing the scores of a set of questions similar t o those proposed in
evaluation methods independent of dialogue strategy have focused on measuring the extent to which systems for interactive problem solving aid users via log file evaluations quantifying repair attempts via turn correction ratio tracking user detection and correction of system errors and considering transaction success
the top level communicative goal for each text plan is expressed as an intended effect on the user s mental such as goal user do action27 the kinds of goals that rtpi handles are typical of critiquing systems systems that provide instructions for performing a task etc
tomita has argued that context free grammars cfgs are over powered for natural language
following the classification of dialogue systems proposed by our baseline clialogue system could be described as a system with topic based performance capabilities adaptive single task a minimal pair clarification correction dialogue manager and fixed mixed initiative
in order to test the improvements over our original system described in we designed a simulated evaluation environment where the performance of the speech recognition module recognition rate was artificially controlled
whereas knowledge based systems like and combining multiple resolution strategies are expensive in the cost of human effort at development time and limited ability to scale to new domains more recent knowledge poor approaches like address the problem without sophisticated linguistic knowledge
some of the methods were originally developed in the context of another hpsg environment the
deals with the translation of spontaneously spoken dialogues where only a minor part consists of sentences in a linguistic sense
the relationship between grammars and semirings was discovered by and for parsing with the cky algorithm dates
we use a scheme which we refer to as the witten bell method to estimate the sum of the probabilities for all novel events because it is simple and robust NUM
our results indicate that our method outperforms the standard techniques for detecting similarity and the system has been successfully integrated into a larger multipledocument summarization system
since the cost of computing the edit distance between a string and all dictionary words is expensive we create an inverted index into the dictionary using character bigrams as the access keys
another active and related area of research that addresses the relationship between higher order linguistic structure and prosodic structure has been explored by
each element of feave is a x NUM value
some promising work by describes the choice of prosodic phrase structure to be the outcome of an ordering of competing factors including focus syntax and pragmatic constraints
pitch accent placement on pronouns as well as on explicit forms in the subject position motivate theory that describes new and givenness in terms of a hierarchical discourse structure
for example both and propose prosodic structure that involves a combination of prominence and phrase boundary placement to cue meaning specific speech renditions
to estimate the conditional probabilities between prosodic labels and acoustic signal trees have also been derived using acoustic features such as normalized f0 duration and vowel
freeman examines the problems in depth and building on and its criticisms comes to a well justified conclusion that ig should be treated as a convergent arrangement
the approach thus maintains the generative capabilities of rst particularly when extended along the to ensure coherency through adducement of canonical ordering constraints whilst embracing the intuitive argumentative relationships at a more abstract level
a number of limitations of the generative capacity of rhetorical structure theory rst have recently been identified most notably its inability to adequately handle intention
the operators required to effect the generation of such structure are closely related to the notions of conflict and draw upon the distinction between rebutting and undercutting counterarguments identified
as table NUM shows the switchbc ard data hypothesis that uh huh tends to be used for passive recipiency while yeah tends to be used for incipient speakership
aha describes ib3 ci a constructive indiction algorithm for the instance based classifier ib3
a csa is implemented by modifying the abstract machine for tfss i.e. liam originally designed for executing lilfes
a general perspective on constructive induction is sketched in bloedorn
mitton found a large proportion of real word errors were orthographical to too were where
typographical spelling errors have been studied by many
the planner can use a variety of strategies to select and organize these aspects into complex arguments that can be realized as presentations combining both text and graphics see kerpedjiev for further details on our new framework
four groups experimented with locating and incorporating co occurring pairs of terms including the inquery group from the university of massachusetts in both trec NUM and trec NUM and cornell university in trec NUM
the second new technique started back in trec NUM the second line of table NUM NUM was the use of smaller sections of documents called subdocuments by the pircs system at city university of new york
spelling correction an essential in any system which allows free text typing is based on algorithms developed
there are some quantitative but they only treat the static nature of the sample
sperber wilson s relevance theory inherits the gricean assumption that the hearer s goal of verbal understanciing is to find an interpretation intended by the speaker
null that table recognition is an important step in information extraction has been recognized in
the grammar is converted from the xtag grammar which has more than NUM NUM lexical entries
inefficiency is the major reason why the hpsg formalism has not been used for practical applications
semantic normalization is presented as semantic variation in and consists in finding relations between multi word terms based on semantic relations between single word terms
these are the same distributions that are needed by previous pos based language models equation NUM and
the figures given above results for the system in which came from training and testing on data derived from the penn treebank corpus in which the added null elements like null subjects were left in
since such a test wo n t distinguish p bearing connectives such as meanwhile from non relational adverbials such as at dawn and tonight the latter will have to be excluded by other means such as the pre theoretical test for relational phrases given NUM
any sequent not in this form is easily converted to one of equivalent theoremhood which is firstly directional types are labeled with span information using the labeling which is justified in relation to relational algebraic models for the lambek calculus
the productivity estimates discussed here can be potentially useful for treating lexical rules probabilistically and for quantifying the degree to which language users are willing to apply a rule in order for the dative and benefactive alternation to produce a novel form
as an example of the sort of syntactically based restrictions on quantifier ordering which this model can implement consider the generalization that a quantifier can not be raised across more than one major clause boundary
in this paper we propose an interlingual mechanism that we have called lnterlingual slot structure iss based on slot structure ss presented in
this paper will examine the model of one of these theories autolexical as it is implemented in a computational scope generator and critic
it has long been recognized that the possibility and preference rankings of scope readings depend to a great degree on the position of scope taking elements in the surface
the very first stage consists of a memory based part of speech tagger mbt for which we refer to
null for more references and information about these algorithms we refer to
we are concerned with the implicational or product free fragment of the associative lambek
in fact the resulting distribution of tasks would be rather similar to the gossip system as described by first the planner produces sentencesized semantic nets which it marks with theme rheme information
some examples for english include the english parser used in tide sparkle project briscoe et al and the finder built with a memory based approach
make a very similar claim a computational system for 9e emtion would try to plan a retention as a signal of an impending shift so that after a retention a shift would be preferred rather than a continuation
what counts as r migstion does this include bridging references strube and hahn op cit how do centering tra l itions relate to discourse
prince for a discussion of the form of inferrables
while extensive evaluations of this technology remain to be carried out naturalistic studies of audio browsing systems demonstrate their effectiveness in helping users produce accurate meeting summaries whittaker hyland wilcox schilit
a sufficient condition for the consistency of a pcfg is given in
the formula is a modification for non deterministic automata of the formula in where it is stated with two typographical errors the factorials in the numerators are absent
as such it is more similar to active chart rather than cyk
such metonymic extensions are essential for determining the nature of the modifier modified relationships in
the interface language chosen comprises the encoding of target language specific semantic information in a combination of underspecified discourse representation theory and minimal recursion semantics see and copestake
for the syntactic generator the relevant syntactic information is extracted in the form of a feature based lexicalized tag fb ltag grammar schabes
work on generation with tag generally assumes that there is a one to one mapping between the information in the generator input and the choice of elementary tree yang
in ps based accounts the construction is represented by phrasal categories and extraction is limited NUM NUM bounding nodes
the semantic distance is calculated according to the relationship of the positions of the words semantic attributes in the
report prediction accuracy of NUM NUM NUM NUM and NUM NUM for the first second and third best dialogue act in their terminology illocutionary force type prediction respectively while report the corresponding accuracy rates as NUM NUM NUM NUM and NUM NUM respectively
recent work tends to unify these two reboul personal communication
different functions can be filled by one and the same constituent given the notational equivalence of hpsg and systemic grammar first mentioned and further elaborated one can characterize a systemic grammar as a large type hierarchy with multiple conjunctive and disjunctive and multi dimensional inheritance with an open world semantics
computational instances of systemic grammar are successfully employed in some of the largest and most influential text generation projects such as for example communal techdoc drafter paris and gist
another investigated approach was k means clustering see as a robust and proven alternative to hierarchical clustering
such analyses have been laid out elsewhere and can not be repeated here
NUM 3gemination in arabic words can alternatively be analyzed as consonant lengthening and as
developed a heuristic of ranking transition pairs by cost to evaluate different cfranking schemes
ariane for example uses special purpose rule writing formalisms for each of its morphological and lexical modules both for analysis and for generation with a strict separation of algorithmic and linguistic knowledge
much of the mrd based research has focused on the analysis and exploitation of the sense definitions alshawi vossen
the topical clusters of mrd senses coupled with the topical description of sense shift knowledge can support and realize automatic sense extension as advocated in and prevent a proliferation of senses in the semantic lexicon
krovetz observes that the ldoce indicates explicit sense shifts via the deictic reference which is a link to the previous sense created by such terms as this these that those its itself such a and such an
for details of the transform detransform paradigm
this might be necessary for example to model the relative frequencies of er versus ee suffixation since although the latter is more productive by baayen and definition tokens of the former are more
in our experiments we have used a conjugate gradient optimization program adapted from the one presented in
use supervised learning to automatically adjust feature weights
we evaluated the two methods using ten thousand tv news texts and found that high frequency key word method showed slightly better results than the method based on tf idf scores
some researchers have proposed pronoun resolution algorithms that do not involve focus tracking
the system makes use of the alembic automated named entity system for finding named entities
the speech synthesis markup language ssml is used as an interface for tts
other cts related research includes and
alshawi uses dependency information in a machine translation system
the class based attempt to obtain the best estimates by combining observations of classes of words considered to belong to a common category
determined various disambiguating behaviors based on syntactic category for example that verbs derive more disambiguating information from their objects than from their subjects and adjectives derive almost all disambiguating information from nouns they modify
we use a stop verb list to discard from steps NUM and NUM verbs taken too many nouns as objects such even in a large actually the noun distributions have not many common verbs
many computational linguists working on dg based parsing have based their work on these assumptions e.g.
according to mel pp NUM NUM NUM a preposition must have a dependent np except sn the following cases
in designing the resources we had in mind a casual novice user either an individual student or researcher with an interest in but no strong asee for a fuller discussion of alternatives
an early stage in the project defined a list of properties that a corpus searching interface should have
for instance use document structures and semantic information by means of natural language processing technique to set hyperlinks on plain texts
it is not only costly but timeconsuming often delaying the release of the product in some markets also the quality is uneven and hard to control
if the summarization system can find the needed information in other on line sources then it can produce an improved summary by merging information extracted from the input articles with information from the other sources
the initial size of where rows and columns correspond to the NUM NUM and NUM most frequent words in the corpus NUM each initial matrix was then reduced by using svd using svd packc
the probabilistic approach proposed here could we think form the basis for such reasoning for a detailed discussion of the learning of lexical rules NUM
brandow mitze reported that using programmatically generated sulnmaries improved precision significantly but with a dramatic loss in recall
our study is also different from these previous ones in that measuring the agreement among annotators became
this can be explained if one assumes the operation of imp as described in a drt framework itself inspired
as pointed p NUM the gemination vs spreading behavior of form ix stems is closely paralleled by form i stems involving traditionally analyzed biliteral or geminating roots such as tm also characterized as tmm and sm possibly smm and many others of the same ilk
preemption by synonymy can also apply in cases where the blocking form is basic and does not involve affixation such as glory blocking gloriosity
finally it is interesting to compare our method with some aspects of the program for induction of sense division of sch
the retrieval engine used in the experiments reported here is the inquery system
NUM this observation has been extensively explored in a phrase structure framework
the material has been extracted by from the penn treebank wall street journal corpus
an utterance of a discourse can either begin a new segment of the discourse complete the current segment or contribute to it
this multilingual approach has been successfully applied to phonology by
NUM comparison with grosz and sidner s theory have argued that a theory of dsp recognition depends upon an underlying theory of collaborative plans
the introduction of non lexical categories also permits the resolution of the inconsistencies pointed out by neuhaus and broker
for has demonstrated that exploiting frequency information can improve disambiguation accuracy
desirable properties of like finite ambiguity and decidability of string acceptance intuitively hold for dependency syntax
gaifman showed that projective dependency grammars expressed by dependency rules on syntactic categories are weakly equivalent to context free grammars
on the other hand not only is the computation of finer resolution alignments such as phrase or word level alignments a much more complex operation it also raises a number of difficult problems related to which we wanted to avoid at least at this point
but actually statistical alignment methods such as those derived from provide us with a simple solution to find the best alignment these methods explore different alignment hypotheses and select the one with the highest probability with regard to a certain statistical model of translation
discourse segmentation has also received keen attention from the engineering side because the natural language processing systems that follow the speech recognition system are designed to accept linguistically meaningful units
firstly such patterns can be thought of as ad hoc categories categories built by people to achieve
white proposed a generalized path based incremental theme role to account for the semantic behavior of both patient and path delimiting arguments fairly akin to the present one since it crucially relies on a similar individual quantity of matter distinction
the following event object mapping predicate map i applying only to i inc aspectual roles can be derived from krifka s map o e mapping to objects events by replacing his standard partial order operator with i
we encountered problems specifications for complex sentences
of incremental non atomic events a formal and computational treatment of incremental non atomic events will be formulated here relying on model theoretic logics and on the generative lexicon framework gl henceforth for an introduction
encoding a richer information about result states in the lexical entries of such verbs as would allow us to account elegantly for this kind of non atomic non incremental telic readings of events
aspeetual classes the main and complement clauses were categorised according to the four aspectual state to love to know to cost activity to run to walk to laugh accomplishment to destroy to create achievement to notice to win the classification of a situation regarding theses classes was tested using linguistic tests e.g.
in answer to this convincingly shows the relation of functional equivalence if one sets aside considerations of appropriateness to genre and stage in the text development between formulations based on visual formatting and discursive tbrmulations
alembic NUM NUM allows the interactive markup in sgml of text files according to predefined tagsets NUM NUM NUM
zla the third day figure NUM an example of tv news articles nhk evening tv newscasts NUM
the textual metafunction described by as the text forming component in the linguistic system comprising the resources that language has for creating text ibid NUM has tended to receive the least developed treatment
as it is being constructed the model is presented to the user through diagrams and fragments of text
this method which is based on the intuition that frequency of reference to a concept is significant can be usefully used to locate at least some important concepts in full text especially when frequency of a keyword in a document is calculated relative to its frequency in a large corpus as in standard information retrieval ir
one of the earliest statistical techniques for identifying significant topics in a document for use in creating automatic abstracts was who developed a method of making a list of stems and or words sometimes called keywords removing keywords on a stoplist and then calculating the frequency of the remaining keywords
a local learning algorithm littlestone s winnow is used at each target node to learn its dependence on other nodes
the wsj npvp set consists of part of speech tagged wall street journal material marcus supplemented with syntactic tags indicating noun phrase and verb phrase boundaries
our training and test corpora for instance are lessthan gargantuan compared to such collections as the penn treebank
we can identify these kind of verbs stative and state change without action with a dictionary like ipal basic verb dictionary for
both taggers used the penn treebank tagset and were trained on the wall street journal corpus
core applies the express doubt discourse action based on lambert to simultaneously achieve these two goals leading to the generation of the semantic form of the following utterance NUM ca is n t it true that dr lewis has n t been given tenure
NUM young moore argued that if a parent belief is accepted even though a child belief that is intended to support it is rejected the rejection of the child belief need not be addressed since it is no longer relevant to the agents overall goal
further details on this can be found in
using pos tags in word clustering means that words that take on different pos tags can ibe better
formulates a dp search for stochastic bracketing transduction grammars
the tags sets we shall examine are the set used in the penn tree bank ptb and the c5 tag set used by the claws part of speech
michael carl shallow post morphological processing with kurd
pruning methods have already been used successfully in machine translation
developing large scale grammars for natural languages is a complicated task and the problems grammar engineers face when designing broad coverage grammars are reminiscent of those tackled by software engineering
chart parsing methods have proven effective for parsing strings and are commonplace in natural
it is based on the existence of large scale lexical annotation tools such as part of speech taggers and sense taggers several of which have now been developed for
we use word features similar to the ones used in such as capitalization hyphenation and endings of words for estimating the word emit probability of unknown words
for the ibm manual corpus and the atis domains a supertag annotated corpus was collected using the parses of the xtag system and selecting the correct analysis for each sentence
a key feature of our grammar compilation method is the representation of the grammar by a weighted transducer that can then be preoptimized using weighted transducer determinization and
but we can use the methods for left and right linear grammars as subroutines if the grammar can be decomposed into left linear and right linear components that do not call each other recursively
this is roughly in agreement
we prepared NUM and NUM examples for the expressions respectively and conducted the experiment in increments of NUM
provide a more detailed account of the use of prosodic information in verbmobil
the lexicon plays a central role in linguistic formalisms such as lfg gpsg hpsg ltag link grammar and some version
pioneered by the ibm natural language group and later pursued by for example schabes roth this approach decouples the issue of wellformedness of an input string from the problem of assigning a structure to it
feature based lexicalized tree adjoining grammar fb ltag joshi schabes is a tree rewriting grammar formalism unlike context free grammars and head grammars which are string rewriting formalisms
fb ltags trace their lineage to tree adjunct grammars tags which were first developed in joshi and later extended to include unification based and lexicalization schabes
amalia operates o n input grammars encoded in a subset of the ale specification in particular amalia supports the same type hierarchies as ale does with exactly the same specification syntax
it is often the case that repairs to an external transducer whose behavior is unsatisfactory can be described in terms of operations in the calculus of regular relations
we assume that currently available large corpora are a reasonable approximation to
decision lists have already been successfully applied to lexical ambiguity resolution where they perfromed well
this approach is essentially the same as
braille labeling is inflexible and when enough labels are applied to facilitate suitable understanding the map often becomes cluttered
mutual information compares the probability of the co occurence of words a and b with the independent probabilities of occurrence of a and b
experiments were carried out on the trec NUM collection which consists of NUM NUM documents and NUM topics voorhees and
many have shown that the paragraph is a basic unit of coherency and that it functions very slmilarly in many languages of vastly different
profit prolog with features inheritance and is an extension of prolog which supports inheritance based typed feature structures
specificity principles apply also to hsnom where hyponymy is promoted similarly to
we chose to implement these classifiers with decision trees using quinlan c4 NUM trained on a subset of the original repeat pair data
following are two methods for selecting collocation words of a given collocational property
following wanner a sentence planner has tomake the following decisions fine grained discourse structuring including discourse marker choice sentence grouping and sentence content determination clause internal structuring choice of referring expressions lexical choice rcb two groups of considerations are important for these tasks first the motivating factors such as stylistic choices semantic relations intentions theme development focusing discourse history
approaches that encode marker choice in the grammar such as while certainly an improvement over previous h l mappings between relations and markers loose flexibility when it comes to account for the interactions between marker choice and other sentence planning decisions
moser and dieugenio also take a broader view on marker production in that they try to determine general factors that influence the use of markers in text and in that they consider more than pairs of propositions
in the lexical knowledge base wordnet is used as a bootstrap for verb disambiguation
dealing with syntactic paraphrase in the general language propose a similar representation by using the stag formalism to detect syntactic related sentences
however dealing with already linguistic filtered data aims at statistically build rough clusters supposing that similar candidate terms have similar expansions
the work described in utilized a decision tree capable of judging which one of two given anaphor antecedent pairs is better
for our experiments we use the atr itl speech and language database consisting of NUM japanese spoken language dialogs annotated with coreferential tags
when s NUM top level verb classes we found an agreement of our classification with her class of verbs of changes of state except for the last three verbs in the list in fig NUM which is sorted by probability of the class label
2all examples relating to the xtag grammar come from the xtag
all basenp initial words receive a b
discourse markers are conjectured to give the hearer information about the discourse structure and so aid the hearer in understanding how the new speech or text relates to what was previously said and for resolving anaphoric references
introduce taxonomy of likelihood based clustering algorithms for co occurrence data some of which produce bipartite clustering
methods of resolving ambiguities have been based for example on the assumption that case slots are mutually independent or at most two case slots are dependent
the grammars for english german and japanese follow the paradigm of hpsg which is the most advanced unification based grammatical theory based on typed feature structures
examination of the full range of rules proposed shows postulated upper bound on the length of list valued attributes such as subcat in the lexicon can not be maintained leading to unrestricted generative capacity in constraint based formalisms utilizing hpsg style lexical rules
we have chosen the cyk like algorithm for tag described in as our starting point
an experiment reveals how often this kind of skewed alignment happens in our english german scheduling conversation parallel corpus
and i ipsg a hybrid model
the word alignment a j is trained automatically using statistical translation models as described in
we do this in our implementation by applying the optimization method threshold accepting which is an efficient simplification of simulated annealing
note there also exists scope to apply intrasegmental phonological constraints such as lyman s law p NUM which is left as an item for future research
discourse intentions are purposes of the speaker expressed in terms of both the task plans of the speaker the domain plans and the plans recursively generated by these plans the discourse plans NUM
within the cognitive framework introduced elementary spatial concepts such as the english above are characterised by locative relations between a potentially mobile object called the trajector tr and a static reference object called the landmark lm
in previous work we have shown this technique significantly increases text classification accuracy when given limited amounts of labeled data and large amounts of unlabeled data
the model discussed below resolves some of these issues through the use of mechanisms of selective visual attention through abstraction of established models from computational neuroscience and extension to allow linguistic input to cue selection and scene parsing
it is well accepted that perceptual representations may rely upon independent encodings of object features and properties in distinct anatomical areas and that some mechanism is then required to associate or bind the representations together to facilitate processing of a particular object
argued that one should first hand design the grammar to encode some linguistic notions and then use the re estimation procedure to fine tune the parameters substituting the cost of hand labeled training data with that of hand coded grammar
it is has been shown that determining the consistency of these constraints is np hard
we have experimented with two representations of the test
to give an example in one version of gp nine primes or elements are recognized viz the manner
appelt used interactions typical of linguistic actions to design critics for action subsumption in kamp
is an algorithm that learns rules from example tuples in a relation
figure NUM an example of newspaper articles asahi newspaper NUM
in using some explicit expressions such as lognormal law for g p we again face the problem of sample size dependency of the parameters of these laws
the lnre large number of rare events zone is defined as the range of sample size where the population events different morphemes are far from being exhausted
within verbmobil the generation component will also be used for text generation when producing protocols as described in
good and introduced the method of interpolating and extrapolating the number of types for arbitrary sample size but it can not be used for extrapolating to a very large size
measure the dialogue module s ability to recover from partial failures of recognition or understanding i.e. implicit recovery and inappropriate utterance ratio discuss applying turn correction ratio transaction success and contextual appropriateness to dialogue evaluations and discuss using task completion time as a black box evaluation metric
measuring solution quality transaction success or contextual appropriateness is meaningless since we are not interested in measuring how efficient travel agents are in responding to clients queries but rather how well the system conveys the speakers goals
one common approach to evaluating spoken language systems focusing on human machine dialogue is to compare system responses to correct reference answers however as discussed by the set of reference answers for any particular user query is tied to the system s dialogue strategy
has shown that multimodal utterances rarely contain more than two or three elements
employ a grammatical framework constrained set grammars in which constituent structure rules are augmented with spatial constraints
in linguistics the central goal of research on alternations is to uncover the relationships between syntax and semantics linking rules and to form classifications of verbs according to their
as an example the event of a person named jill filling a tank with water is shown in figure NUM in a graphical kl one notation with relation names appearing in boxes
therefore numerous strategies have been proposed to alleviate the complexity issues related to multiple sequence comparison
used part of speech bigram model and heuristic templates for unknown words
therefore by using the procedure each literal whose predicate is definite in the body is replaced by the body of its definition clause
in addition those two maximally discriminating sentences could also be used as an interface for an interactive translation system e.g. the negotiator where the human translator would be asked to distinguish between the two possible readings
a formal justification for this claim is given in the next section by showing a reduction of the tag derivation process to a multitype galton watson branching
the dialect restrictions come from the cambridge encyclopedia of the english language p NUM
this approach is discussed in detail
further there is a variety of evidence which suggests that modus tollens in fact occupies a crucial position in human reasoning cite examples not only from psychology artificial intelligence and empirical observation but also by reference to classic examples of euclid galileo etc disjunctive syllogisms are also found reasonably often but the remaining rules of inference are found very rarely
introduction the ability to generate arguments in natural language is attracting wide ranging research interest and it is becoming clear that the problem is also stimulating investigation of a number of problems of importance to natural language generation nlg as a whole
all of the neural networks used here are strictly feed forward rumelhart
the goal is particularly interesting both from a realisation point of view where information can be exploited that x is being made salient in the context of an argument from x and an ordering point of view whether or not statement should precede refutation and then whether or not ucp i argumentation should precede pro support is a major issue of debate in psychology
the rules of inference are clear candidates for operationalisation moves such as modus ponens are clearly vital components of any argument though as noted in p201 it is inappropriate to view the implication step as one of conventional material implication
important areas of future research will involve methods for predicting the contents of the next utterance by using dialog specific discourse handling linguistic differences between the source and target languages such as subject ellipsis we believe that some situational information such as the speakers roles in the could be potentially helpful for both predicting the contents of the next utterance and resolving linguistic differences
cleeremans for motivation for the temporal structure of finite state grammar learning
it is akin in spirit to the backward elimination
in order to reduce the number of false positives NUM out of NUM NUM we tried using a stack based approach towards finding potential anchors in the previous sentences as suggested i.e. the system would go back one sentence at a time and stop as soon as a relation with a potential anchor was found rather than trying to find all possible links
we assume that currently available large cotpola are a reasonable approximation to using a combined corpus of NUM mllhon words we measured the relative frequenc distributions of the four linguistic features vbd bn active passive intransitive transitive causative noncausative over a sample of verbs from the three lextcal semantic classes
the experimental system we implemented is for explaining the installation and operation of a telephone with an answering machine feature and simulates instruction dialogues performed by an expert in a face to face situation with a telephone in front of her
the following list mentions only the most pertinent issues that have come to our attention and complements the list given by grosz joshi
the visual information considered includes pointing gestures facial expressions and iconic gestures and graphical effects such as highlighting and blinking
functional generative description assumes a language independent underlying order which is represented as a projective dependency tree
although proposed a segmentation method that combines segmentation prior to parsing and segmentation during parsing but it suffers from the same problem
the method faces two key problems avoiding invalid deduction and getting provides a somewhat different tabular method for lambek parsing within the proof net deduction framework in an approach where proof net checking is made by unifying labels marked on literals
one body of work uses text category labels associated with reuters newswire to find unexpected patterns among text articles
our approach similar to tzoukerman klavans is to apply nlp tools to extract multi word phrases automatically with high accuracy and use them as the basic unit in the summarization process including frequency calculation
described preliminary experiments comparing browsing of original full texts with browsing of dynamically generated abstracts and reported that abstract browsing was about NUM of the original browsing function with precision and recall about the same
see NUM for the same concepts under different terminology
we have automated the acquisition of some domain knowledge from a large corpus by calculating idfvalues for selecting signature words deriving collocations statistically and creating a word association index
another application of automatically extracted similar words is to help solve the problem of data sparseness in statistical natural language processing
several studies have focused on automatic acquisition of terms from
links result from automatic acquisition of relevant predicative or discursive
the software which was used for the extraction is the uppsala word alignment
as mentioned earlier a lexicalized grammar parser can be conceptualized to consist of two stages schabes
a feature structure anchor will either unify with a lexical item with compatible features yielding the previous case or have an empty realisation though one but a similar situation can occur within the clause with relative clause dependencies from the verb back to the relative pronoun and forward to a trace so the possibility is not unmotivated from the perspective of syntax
in previous papers we have argued for using the more complex structures elementary trees of a lexicalized tree adjoining grammar ltag and its operations adjoining and substitution to associate structure and semantics with a sequence of discourse clauses NUM here we briefly review how it works
of the various computational lexicon models this issue is specially problematic for symbolic lexicons and lexicons based on semantic networks
k schnattinger is supported by a grant NUM
one way to address this problem is to take the set of speech acts that lettergen wants to generate as a goal and to plan exactly how they will be
we have implemented a broad coverage ccg grammar containing about NUM categories based on the xtag english grammar
the nlg community has focused on a small subset of the five generally accepted categories of speech NUM representatives statements given as true depictions of the world e.g. asserting concluding
while these effects could presumably be determined by reasoning from first principles these scripts can be viewed as standard methogs of achieving communicative goals and they are essentially equivalent to the communicative strategies proposed by
since hearers are often unaware of speech repairs they must be able to correct them as the utterance is unfolding and as an indistinguishable event from detecting them and recognizing the words involved
for handling word identities one could follow the approach used for handling the pos tags e.g. and view the pos tags and word identities as two separate sources of information
describe a partially automated annotation tool which constructs a complete parse of a sentence by recursively adding levels to the tree
the data for all our experiments was extracted from the penn treebank ii wall street journal wsj corpus
grefenstette describes a cascade of finite state transducers which first finds noun and verb groups then their heads and finally syntactic functions
intra sentential centering operates at the clause level
some more specific works describe methods to align noun phrases within parallel
this is similar to the set of entities in the focus spaces of the discourse focus stack in grosz and sidner s theory of discourse structure
an alternative response is to aim for the generality of the kind seen in the general field of diagram editing and visual programming of which other papers from that source and are good examples
our corpus consists of NUM computer mediated dialogues NUM in which two participants collaborate on a simple task of buying furniture for the living and dining rooms of a house a variant of the task
in the framework of the em algorithm we can formalize clustering as an estimation problem for a latent class lc model as follows
more practically one effect of the restriction to context free rules is that it is extremely easy to generate an sgml document type definition dtd for the content of a particular class of diagrams
this is partly due to the fact that english relies on a composition of germanic type as defined in for example to produce compounds and of romance type to produce free nps whereas french relies on romance type for both with the classic pp attachment problems
these and other studies also showed that indexed audio produces more accurate recall although users may take longer to retrieve information whittaker hyland
second informal evaluations of complex speech uis reveal that advanced browsing features are often not well understood by users and do not necessarily improve
the identification is done by parsing the input one sentence at a time using a bottom up chart parser which is a successor
this approach was used for the sbtg using the language independent bracketing degenerate case of the sitg NUM
choi van
the examples were generated with a subset of our working system using a section of the book hal s as test data
attempted to avoid segmentation at all
a bayesian classifier based weight estimation algorithm eq NUM is included for constructing adaptive voting mechanisms
both approaches are combined resulting in a practical small generation grammar tool
defines a tree like data structure for the representation of syntactic analyses
these rules have not yet been formally specified melc NUM f1482165
fox gives a striking example
the phonetic similarity criterion is shown in table NUM
however the sri core language engine used a straight forward approach
describe plan based repairs argues in favor of domain knowledge
recently also keyword based topic identification has been applied to dialogue move dialogue act
however it would be interesting to see if techniques developed for word sense disambiguation such could be adapted to determine the usefulness of a query term for retrieval
this problem has already been addressed in the field of the information retrieval but it has been shown that the impact of word sense disambiguation is of limited utility
a comparison of our representation and algorithms with kautz s can be
in their reliability study found a fair agreement among annotators k NUM
the first obvious strategy for deciding whether a capitalized word in an ambiguous position is a proper name or not is to apply lexicon lookup possibly enhanced with a morphological word guesser e.g. and mark as proper names the words which are not listed in the lexicon of common words
this method employs a spreading activation technique to calculate the importance values of elements in the text
resolved use the criteria from to assign the transition
in our experiment we used the kyoto university text corpus version NUM a tagged corpus of the mainichi newspaper
115f the crucial distinction is not lexical nonlexical but productive semiproductive rule
this draws on insights theory abbreviated form of the third singular verb formation lexical rule
there have been several efforts to apply machine learning techniques to the same
the corpus based algorithm that we used to build the semantic lexicon requires five seed words as input for each semantic category and produces a ranked list of words that are statistically associated with each category
other methods could be used to generate these items including the use of existing knowledge bases such as or cyc if they have adequate coverage for the domain
several other systems learn extraction patterns that can also be viewed as conceptual case frames with selectional restrictions e.g. palka and crystal
standard notions of similarity generally involve the creation of a vector or profile of characteristics of a text fragment and then computing on the basis of frequencies the distance between vectors to determine conceptual distance
entries but exist only in morphological relations and more particularly the word and and many others
both the work of employed decision tree learning
as shown string unification is decidable and has a finite number of substitutions if repeated variables are only permitted on one side of the equation
each of these defined semantic classes is then mapped to a wordnet
p4 vocabulary learning means learning the words and their limitations probability of occurrences and syntactic behavior around them
however when solving real problems most researchers use software supporting high level descriptions of automata automatic compilation and optimisation and debugging facilities packages for two level morphology such as are well known examples
the other one from which the performance figures in this section are drawn is an experimental speech translation system focusing on incremental operation and uniform
we then prove the equivalence between the language generated in tag by such a grammar g and the closure under substitution and adjunction of the logical representation m note that our interpretation of adjunction is very close to the use of quasi trees described
the most obvious way to reduce the number of neighboring identically labeled edges is to reduce the time resolution provided by a word
the production model is based on an interpolation of artificially generated formant patterns of NUM different vowels taken from page NUM NUM
several researchers subsequently continued and improved this line of
all the corpus examples of the dictionary definition words instead of those word alone were used as sense indicators
also they provide a possible mechanism by which functional constraints on vowel system that were first researched with computers by liljencrants and lindblom can emerge from interacting language users
a significant effort is now underway in the speech and hearing community to exploit these favourable conditions see for instance
apart from the use in effendi the protocol is also used as synthesis input specification in the for the system utterances within the german clarification dialogue
subsequently a method was developed to use a special case of the itgrthe aforementioned btgrfor the translation task
the morphological analyzer used during the parsing process just after the tokenization process is a two level finite state
the described parser was implemented as part of the controll grammar development system
1a more detailed discussion of various aspects of the proposed parser can be found
there is a very small amount of general linguistic knowledge built into the system but no language specific knowledge
this analysis agrees with the proposal made
NUM comparison with previous plan based approaches early work on plan recognition in discourse cohen focused on the problem of reasoning about single utterances
the proposed verbal subcategorisation hierarchy NUM which is based on the sketch by is shown in figure i
the lexicalized tree adjoining grammar ltag formalism although not context free is the most well known instance in this category
this expansion consists of the addition of a new family of constraints existential implicational constraints which allow the specification of faithfulness constraints that can be satisfied at a distance and the definition of two ways to combine simple constraints into com plex constraints that is constraint disjunction and local constraint
this problem was whose algorithm starts with a filter transducer which filters out any string containing a marker
to be compatible with the search an output is also associated with these words for example the nationality itself as in american american french french soviet soviet we must also construct a list of countries as we find productive forms such as u s military officer france s officer
as they do in many word based forms of dependency theory e and mel
we have implemented a trilingual sentence alignment program called trial based on the approach presented in section NUM and on a bilingual sentence alignment program called sfial which implements a modified version of the method of
to perform this extraction task we use a tagger to disambiguate the french text and then extract the following syntactic patterns n prep n n n n a a n which are good candidates to be terms
the parsing phase that is needed to establish adequate constraints on the words is of cubic complexity while the most general generation algorithm needed to order the words in the target text is o n NUM
word features are introduced primarily to help with unknown words as in
a top level index is also
ouvre la fen tre done on aura de pair open the window therefore we ll get some fresh air other class of consequence connectives du coup de ce air for which the reader is referred to
point out two severe difficulties for head driven generation with hpsg
the engine was intended to be a sicstus prolog application sicstus turned out to be non cgi compatible so a unix shell version of datr mud minimal unix datr was implemented using a combination of unix text stream processing tools mainly awk
in the former case the speaker conveys a strong but uncertain belief that the professor of cs821 is not dr smith while in the latter the speaker conveys a strong but uncertain belief that the professor of cs821 is dr jones
like other brill transformation rule systems our system can take in the output of another system and try to improve on it
grammatical relationships are often stored in some type of structure like the f structures of lexicalfunctional grammar
in addition open class expressions are handled separately from closed class expressions and sentences consisting of a single expression are handled in the
in sfial we essentially combine into a statistical framework two criteria the length similarity criterion proposed by and a graphemic resemblance criterion based on the existence of cognate words between languages
studies of local coreference within discourse segments clearly show that recency is not the primary factor in human pronoun interpretation see gordon for a review
position on short term memory capacity articulated in kintsch depends on a general model of discourse processing that incorporates many other processing assumptions
the use of a focus space stack as a model of global attentional state for drew on the use of stacks by programming language interpreters and compilers to determine variable values
the main claims about its use in processing have been for handling and reasoning about
recently there is also a greater realization within the computational linguistics community that the layout and types of information such as tables contained in a document are important considerations in text processing see the call for participation aaai fail symposium series
this means that for each string w there is a lineartime NUM to NUM mapping between appropriately describes has as accepting or equivalently generating zl and z from the outside in
the cky is time o n NUM ipi where in the worst case ipi vni NUM one ignores unary productions
the addition of functional constraints is common in hpsg and other unification
a large number of researchers have come to grip with the method of understanding some types of text including instruction manuals
these are specific examples of the more general problem of visual parsing which has been a focus of attention in research on visual programming and pen based interfaces for the creation of complex graphical objects such as mathematical equations
as reported in most base nps present in he data are less or equal than NUM words long
NUM head automaton grammars in time o n NUM in this section we show that a length n string generated by a head automaton can be parsed in time o n4
this lexical choice module picks lexical items and transforms the speech acts to functional descriptors fds to be processed by fuf surge the realization module used to generate the english text
tively for figure NUM tion tree would be as in figure NUM terms the derived tree and its component elementary trees object level trees the derivation tree is termed a meta level tree since it describes the object level trees
computational linguistics volume NUM looked at some of the factors in our complexity metrics and found that many of the factors used were indeed correlated with the increased times required to interpret graphs and charts
grosz and her colleagues suggest that a competent generation system should apply the constraint on movement by planning ahead in an attempt to minimize the number of shifts in a locally coherent discourse segment grosz
we also demonstrate the classification performance of these models in a large scale experiment involving the disambiguation of NUM words taken from the hector word
in addition to these describes other search strategies and measures such as minimum description length that can be used for model selection
in model switching kayaalp and the naive mix more than one of the models generated during search is used to perform classification
these parameters could be estimated directly from counts in the training data that is we could use the unrestricted maximum likelihood estimate of pi mood
NUM word sense disambiguation results in a recent collection of experiments we applied the basic method to word sense disambiguation of NUM words from the
the compilation of weighted left linear or right linear grammars into weighted automata is straightforward
and words that suggest states
studies fall into two distinct groups first studies are concerned with identifying the characteristic properties of a small set of similar markers and determining the reasons behind choosing a particular marker from this set in a given context examples are the markers since and because or the temporal mark ers before and while
the integration of statistical stochastic approaches such as decision tree for the above discourse related issues is another area of interest for future work
gives a very thorough taxonomy of deixis
proposed a method to handle extra null grammatical phenomena with a chart based incremental english japanese mt system based on observations of a translation corpus
the incremental application of cb pattems is based on the idea of incremental chart with notions of linguistic levels
our data consisted of five randomly selected dialogues from the switchboard corpus of spoken telephone
for the purpose of our evaluation we used the nacsis test collection
verbs are very important sources of knowledge in many language engineering tasks and the relationships among verbs appear to play a major role in the organization and use of this knowledge knowledge about verb classes is crucial for lexical acquisition in support of language generation and machine and document classification
the grammar formalism used is derived from p NUM
most counts were performed on the tagged version of the brown corpus and on the portion of the wall street journal distributed by a combined corpus in excess of NUM million words with the exception of causativity which was year of the wsj a corpus of NUM million words
used simulated annealing to optimise the choice of senses for a text based upon their textual definition in a dictionary
grammatical links between verbs adjectives and adverbs and the head noun of their arguments arer identified using a specially constructed shallow syntactic
the difference in ease of interpreting the resolutions of this ambiguity has been shown to be sensitive to both frequency and to verb class distinctions
this inference can only take place if there is indeed a real causal link between the
the application of advanced techniques like neural networks fuzzy techniques and hidden markov models did not bring the expected breakthrough due to the inherent segmentation problems
efficient heuristic algorithm could possibly be developed theoretically the problem is intractable due to the equivalence to the npcomplete n tuple configuration problem
citing classifying the shapes is not based primarily on the shape similarity but rather on focal points and marker stroke configurations instead
despite the utility of such data however sources of bilingual text are subject to such limitations as licensing restrictions usage fees restricted domains or genres and dated s canadian politics or such sources simply may not exist for this work was supported by department of defense contract mda90496c1250 darpa ito contract n66001 NUM c NUM and a research grant from sun microsystems laboratories
works related to the syntax of hebrew and in particular to noun phrases are abundant in the theoretical linguistics
more mene test results and discussion of the formal run can be found in
different approaches focus the role of communcative functions to a greater or less de2for references to individual systems see the web or a detailed current state of the art such as zock and adorni or bateman bateman to appear
for proposed statistical parsing models which incorporated lexical semantic information
it also follows up an initial experiment conducted by the current authors
similar to the first step of the tagging process was to identify idioms although the term is used somewhat differently in this study bi and trigrams which were always tagged with one specific tag sequence unambiguously tagged i.e. were extracted from the training text
discusses a coercion methodology based on wordnet and treebank
we decided to take advantage of the syntactic structures already contained in the penn tree bank ptb in order to build a large set of functional relation pairs much
only by interpolating it with a word based model is animprovement
assign no importance to such utterances in their models
this idea is not new but as far as we know it has been implemented in rule based taggers and parsers such but not in models based on probability distributions
the morphological analyzer used for this purpose hajji in prep covers about NUM of running unrestricted text newspaper magazines novels etc
in order to create a pos model we first utilize mxpost a maximum entropy part of speech to get the pos information for each word
upenn edu cat alog ldc93s7 html has been marked up for
our survey of annotation practice attests to this commonality amidst diversity
in order to disambiguate noun objects in a short text NUM NUM words design heuristic rules using semantic similarity information in wordnet and verbs as context
we are planning to compare the clusters found by our method with the clustering one to study how the results overlap and are complementary
the preference selection for a single antecedent in is based on the maximization of confidence values returned from a pruned decision tree for given anaphor candidate pairs
silence durations were automatically obtained from a word aligner entropic
each of which introduces new possibilities that are consistent with our knowledge of the real world w0 that may then be further described through modal
in the tdfs framework an interface between the lexical component and syntactic semantic component of the grammar is required so that some lexical default specification does not persist into the syntactic component for example defaults concerning grammatical agreement see lascarides
the introduction of the element adj taking its value from the set lcb true false rcb corrects the items previously proposed for this kind of algorithms in in order to avoid several adjunctions on a node
the task is so demanding that some researchers are looking more seriously at machine aided human translation as an altemative way to achieve automatic machine
when supported by the modem technology for multimedia communication of the intemet and the www dialect mt systems will produce even greater benefits
lrc used an approach similar to the one for analyzing quoted expressions
in this paper we present core aspects of the multilingual natural language generation component vm geco NUM that has been integrated into the research prototype of a system for spontaneous speech to speech dialog translation
these graphs are equivalent to fsts with inverted representation fst as in figure NUM where each box represents a transition of the automaton input of the transducer and the label under a box is an output of the transducer
discourse deixis also called textual deixis can be both written c this sentence is written in english and spoken she spoke about this loud
the coding scheme used for pre meeting coding exercises is defined in which was distributed to the group members prior to coding assignments
a first qualitative evaluation of the method has been done with about NUM texts but without a formal protocol as
for the complete list of rhetorical relations and protocol
whereas at the utterance level a hearer must explain why a speaker said what he did at the discourse level an ocp must explain why an icp engages in a new discourse segment at a particular juncture in the discourse
the recipe s constraints however require that d be of the appropriate sort according to the constraint t NUM pi for the identification of the parameter to
this representation provides top down activation in much the same manner as the working memory module of the usher and niebur model the mechanisms together reaiising object tagging through an abstraction of feature based visual search
NUM the preconditions may also be supplemented by a list of applicability conditions specifying the conditions under which it is reasonable to pursue the action and a list of constraints specifying restrictions on instantiations of the operator s parameters
while discussion has centred upon a system which caters for static concepts the system is immediately extensible to the case of dynamic concepts through the addition of a temporal change map to the model input
adopting the set up given by we define the mean matrix m of p as a n i x i n square matrix with its a b th entry being the expected number of variables b resulting from rewriting a
traumaid is a decision support system for addressing the initial definitive management of multiple trauma
the transformation psc1 itself can be encoded in several lines of prolog
in the version of the algorithm that we have used ibi ig the distances between feature representations are computed as the weighted sum of distances between individual features
however they use the data set in a different training test division NUM fold cross validation which makes it tifficult to compare their results with others
and view the pos tags and word identities as two separate sources of information
we ran our first set of experiments on the trains corpus a corpus of human human task oriented dialogs
we have implemented the german grammar and head corner parsing algorithm described in ss2 and ss3 using the controll formalism
some of the data comes from the parsed files NUM NUM of the wall street journal penn treebank corpus and additional parsed text was wall street journal text using the parser described in charniak et al
as we can find some hypernym data in the text by looking for conjunctions involving the word other as in x y and other zs patterns NUM and NUM in hearst
published pm analyses however frequently make use of constraint parametrizations from the align family which requires greater than
the results are compared with a maximum entropy method transformation based learning tbl an instantiation of the backoff estimation and a memory based method
we conducted domain identification and keyword extraction experiment for radio news
representations more similar to ours have been used by who lcss as an interlingua in machine translation and who also represents lcs in a kl one language but for purposes of analysis rather than generation
since the notion of aktionsart is not a well demarcated one in linguistics and since the most comprehensive catalogue of alternations the has largely excluded aktionsart related problems it is rather difficult to evaluate our approach in terms of how many alternations it covers
as for the identifying method available in general discourses the centering theory and the property sharing are proposed
managing gigabytes is not only the title of a popular book that recently came out with a second edition moffat but it is something that ordinary users are beginning to take for granted
we tested high frequency key and a tf idf based text frequency inverse document frequency method
to test the hypotheses in table NUM we use analysis of variance anova to determine whether the values of any of the evaluation measures in figure NUM significantly differ as a function of response strategy and task scenario
toot is implemented using a platform for spoken dialogue agents that combines automatic speech recognition asr textto speech tts a phone interface and modules for specifying a dialogue manager and application functions
propose a hybrid method that combines part of speech trigrams and context features in order to detect and correct real word errors
ct s response is more cooperative since identifying the source of a query failure can help block incorrect user inferences
these account for NUM of the variance in user satisfaction v is a z score normalization and guarantees that the coeffi9since we measure recognition rather than misrecognition this cost factor has a positive coefficient
alltogether the for a discussion of various ways to derive rather than stipulate the syntagmatic pattern of alternating and non alternating segmental positions within stems of prosodic constraints indeed succeeds in narrowing down the set for the 3sg m past tense form to lcb NUM mr NUM amr NUM mar NUM a mar rcb
focussing on cases of nonconcatenative root and pattern morphology declarative prosodic morphology dpm starts with an intuition that is opposite to what the traditional idea of templates or fixed suggests namely that shape variance is actually quite common and should form the analytical basis for theoretical accounts of pm
discourse topic there are some cases of dds which are related to the often implicit discourse topic in the sense of a text rather than to some specific np or vp
we tested in particular whether wordnet encoded a semantic link between the NUM syn hyp mer relations in our corpus just described plus other NUM relations extracted from a second corpus study
our previous heuristics for treatment of pre modifiers in anaphoric resolution handled the first two examples correctly as they present different pre modifiers we did not treat them as anaphoric in the first version of our system
we implemented a wordnet interface that reports a possible semantic link between two nouns when one 4one problem with bridging references is that they are often related to more than one antecedent in the discourse
there are a number of proposals adopting a similar approach to parallelism and semantics of which the most worked out is undoubtly
for instance in the focus value of 8a is defined with the help of the equation i focus value equation i sere x f i where sern is the semantic of the sentence without the focus operator e.g.
i ll kiss you if you do n t want me to kiss you because the hou analysis reconstructs the semantics common to source and target rather than solely the semantics of vp ellipses it can capture the full range of sloppy strict ambiguity illustrated above and shows some of the additional examples listed in
one interpretation is due to brennan friedman who utilize rule NUM for computing preferences for antecedents of pronouns see section NUM NUM
of major note is the fact that city university also ran major experiments walker robertson boughanem jones with the bm25 weighting algorithm in trec NUM including extensive exploration of the various existing parameters and addition of some new ones involving the use of non relevant documents
slot employs a number of rule types some of which are exclusively concerned with precedence
trec NUM contained even more experiments in automatic query expansion such as the group mandala tokunaga tanaka okumura that compared the use of three different thesauri for expansion wordnet a simple co occurrance the null saurus and an automatically built thesaurus using predicate argument structures
strong empirical evidence has been presented over the past NUM years indicating that the human sentence processing mechanism makes on line use of contextual information in the preceding discourse and in the visual environment
the visage interface implements this kind of functionality within its information centric framework NUM
it has been noticed that editing exceptional instances from linguistic instance bases tends to harm generalization accuracy
not being a transitive relation the replicancia is neither an equivalence relation and does not induce a set of equivalence classes as it had been
such interest must be understood within the trend to carry out only partial analysis of texts so as to process them in a reasonable time
corpus based set up thesaurus from large scale corpora
finally the translated queries are sent to an mt sever for information retrieval on the www
one system which explicitly makes use of ct is the caption generation system cgs reported in
NUM word boundary in queries of some languages is not clear thus segmentation is required
the researches of cross language information retrieval abbreviated as clir aim to tackle the language barriers
algorithm this algorithm was first implemented for the muc NUM fastus system and produced one of the top scores a recall of NUM and precision of NUM in the muc NUM coreference task which evaluated systems ability to recog NUM nize coreference among noun
this is due to the width of the verb forest in top level verb synsets tend to have a large number of descendants which are arranged in fewer generations resulting in a flat and bushy tree structure
pause durations were computed automatically with a speech recognizer constrained to the word transcription entropic
the current approach differs from the multi tape approaches in formalizing roots patterns and vocalizations as regular languages and by computing linearizing the stems at compile time via intersection of these regular
this work is presently being carried out by us and others baker
obviously this is impractical if not impossible chapter NUM
in order to capture these prosodic events in a computational model this work uses prosodic labels based on the tobi transcription convention tones and break indices see silverman
we compared performance of the snow tagger with one of the best pos taggers based on brill s tbl and with a naive bayes e.g. based tagger
msi irit sig ceriss boughanem continued their work with a spreading activation model by expanding queries with the top NUM terms from relevance backprop null agation
and defeasible rules are used for representing the concession relation
in this section we will discuss a system which is one of the most advanced and which closely resembles our own
probabilistic context free grammar of gave for the british national corpus NUM million words
for references and recent discussion of this kind of theory see
ribas presented an approach which takes into account the syntactic position of the elements whose semantic relation is to be acquired
approaches to probabilistic clustering similar to ours were presented recently in and
such representations are semantically inadequate for reasons given in philosophical critiques of decomposed linguistic representations for recent discussion
we evaluated our clustering models on a pseudodisambiguation task similar to that performed in but differing in detail
experiments demonstrate the comprehensive coverage of the information contained in mindnet
noted that continuers vary along the dimension of incipient speakership continuers which acknowledge that the other speaker still has the floor reflect passive recipiency and those which indicate an intention to take the floor reflect preparedness to shift from recipiency to speakership
covington treats this as a process that steps through both strings and at each step performs either a match accepting a character from both strings a skip l skipping a character in the first string or a skip NUM skipping a character in the second string
winnow is a multiplicative weight updating and incremental
the former was applied in the texfin the latter was
in this paper we have used bilingual corpus blue book english and for the evaluation of anaphora resolution module
the underspecified semantic representation technique we have used in this paper reflects the core semantic part of the verbmobil interface term vit
the resolution algorithm described in section NUM has been implemented in verbmobil a system which translates spoken german and japanese into english
paraphrasing has been widely investigated in the generation community
this corpus was balanced to represent different domains and was used for the formal test run of the 7th message understanding conference muc NUM in the named entity recognition task
if work in qualitative process theory using functional specifications such as those in e.g. can yield the device and world knowledge that are required for text pianning then the need for cost effectiveness would be met
we use activation with decay spreading from the current context to model the focus of attention
we shall abbreviate terms of the form do a do do al s as do a1 a l s
the dictionaries of phrases are pruned by discarding all phrases occuring less than NUM times at initialization and less than NUM times after each iteration s except for the NUM word phrases which are kept with a number of occurrences set to NUM besides bi multigram and n gram probabilities are smoothed with the backoff smoothing using witten bell discounting NUM
defined in a purely geometric way a class of graphs called noncommutative proofnets relative to multiplicative noncommutative linear logic
in addition we are developing a plan based response generation component
constraint propagation is used as program transformation techniques on the definite clause encoding resulting from the lexical rule compiler
the data and evaluation procedure are similar to that
the definite clause part of our system is very similar to the one of cvf both use delay statements and preferred execution of deterministic goals
the corresponding structures in 4a and 5a below are derived from the diagram in mel p NUM with the passive agent omitted
in the phrase structure approach of p NUM for example there would be an empty category and slash notation as indicated in NUM
bayes is a statistical approach based on the naive bayes
the dialog manager then uses the inheritance hierarchy and an algorithm NUM fully described in to produce a set of semantically consistent inputs to be used by the dialog manager
inspired by lin s notion of structural measured by the total length of the links in a dependency parse we ordered the parses of a sentence using this measure
a closely related problem is that of matching a query to the relevant segment from a longer which primarily involves determining which segment of a longer document is relevant to a query whereas our focus is on which segments are similar to each other
aspectual classification is necessary for interpreting temporal modifiers and assessing temporal and is therefore a necessary component for applications that perform certain natural language interpretation natural language generation summarization information retrieval and machine translation tasks
dm is a speaker s record of what he believes to be shared knowledge about the content of the discourse as it evolved my italics
note that this breakdown analysis meshes well with findings in psycholinguistic researches for example the possible candidates for acquiring conceptual prominence
int th s are used to represent commitment to the joint activity and also engender the type of helpful behavior required of
originally proposed sharedplans as a more appropriate model of plans for discourse than the single agent plans based on ai planning formalisms such as strips
these mental attitudes may be ascribed on the basis of those of the ocp s beliefs that are in accord with the mental attitudes comprising
state transition diagrams as used in finite state morphology or the networks of systemic functional grammar
because of the sense ambiguity some modifier head relations are misrecognized to complement predicate other errors contain the same kind of results
is the most similar to our own in that their ultimate goal is to extract information from the world book encyclopedia
to avoid the need for having users code such patterns we have developed the proteus extraction tool pet
consequently mel p NUM distinguishes the morphological dependency as a distinct type of dependency
the middleware our agents use to communicate is the open agent architecture oaa from sri
although there has been much research on the use of automatic methods for extracting information from dictionary definitions hand coded knowledge bases e.g.
for additional details and background on the creation and use of mindnet readers are and
the weights in mindnet are based on the computation of averaged vertex probability which gives preference to semantic relations occurring with middle frequency and are described in
a solution is then to use statistical methods to induce semantic constraints of frequently used verbs as in
an example of a template produced by muc systems and used in our system is shown in figures NUM and NUM to test our system we used the templates produced by systems participating as input
for instance uses a parse tree analysis algorithm and correctly solves an average of NUM of the personal pronouns in a selection of english texts
thus the derived structure resembles more a unistratal dependency representation like those used than the multistratal representations of for example mel
second the features and subcategorizations represented in comlex are encoded in terms of grammatical concepts first developed s by naomi
unlike mobidic it does not have access to more than one dictionary at the same time
it has been applied to hpsg by
corba common object request broker architecture has been defined by the omg as an interoperability norm for heterogeneous languages smalltalk c java and platforms unix macintosh pc
we are continuing our work toward the implementation of a complete distributed multi agent system following the caramel architecture
present results from aligning multi word and single word expressions with a recall of NUM per cent if partially correct translations were included
chose the lowest classes in a taxonomy for which the association for the co occurrence can be estimated
reports that their termight system helped double the speed at which terminology lists could be compiled at the at t business translation services
first consider the following dialogue segment where h a financial advisor and j an advice seeker are discussing whether j is eligible in tum taken from harry NUM h there s no reason why you should n t have an ira
wyer argued that evidence is most persuasive if it is previously unknown to the hearer suggesting that the system should select evidence that it believes is novel to ea NUM finally grice s maxim states that one should not make a contribution more informative than is needed thus the system should select evidence chains that contain the fewest beliefs
in the second strategy ask why the agent requests further evidence from the other agent that will help her make a decision about whether to accept the proposal as in the following example ask why t does carrier matter to them do you know
they utilize galliers belief revision mechanism galliers NUM to predict the hearer s belief in bel based on NUM the speaker s beliefs about the hearer s evidence pertaining to bel which can include beliefs previously conveyed by the hearer and stereotypical beliefs that the hearer is thought to hold and NUM the evidence that the speaker is planning on presenting to the hearer
jackendoff 115f also notes that the learning of semiproductive lexical rules must be grounded in the prior existence of basic and derived lexical entries in the child s lexicon
to illustrate how the propose evaluate modify framework models collaborative planning dialogues consider the following dialogue segment taken from the trains NUM corpus gross NUM m load the tanker car with the oranges and as soon as engine e2 gets there couple the cars and take it to uh NUM s well we need a boxcar to take the oranges
were found between performances on the sopi and the opi across a variety of languages
NUM every element of s NUM has a correspondent in NUM no deletion of a segment NUM a align left stiff vocal folds or a l svf or b
i am grateful to lisa zsiga and an anonymous reader for their comments on an earlier version of this paper and to cathy ball and donna lardiere for their help and encouragement which aided me in accomplishing this project and also to michael hammond for allowing me to try to in order to make it compatible with my kaeps system
the full tbl system presented is even faster uses less memory and is in certain respects more general
we performed experiments directly on the taxonomies extracted by as well as on slight variations of them
for further discussion of these and other possible processing possibilities NUM
pseudo likelihood is also consistent but in the present implementation it is consistent for the conditional distributions p0o w y w and not necessarily for the full distribution p0o
early mechanisms of this sort included categorial and subcategorization
this is explained as follows the system estimated the referential property of koutei buai official rate to be indefinite in the method
these reports were parsed with the english slot grammar esg resulting in NUM NUM clauses that were parsed fully with no selfdiagnostic errors esg produced error messages on NUM NUM of this corpus NUM NUM complex sentences
the combination of indicators is performed by four standard supervised learning algorithms decision tree log linear regression and genetic programming gp
the system has undergone a form of pro active evaluation in that its design is informed by detailed predictive modeling of how users interact multimodally and incorporates the results of empirical studies of
empirical studies of utilizing wizard of oz techniques have shown that when users are free to interact with any combination of speech and pen a single spoken utterance maybe associated with more than one gesture
the input to linkit is text which has been pre processed and tagged with part of speech by mitre s publicly available alembic workbecn
a variation of this observation has been and others who have used the distinction between heads and modifiers for query expansion
later in the document the same entity is usually referred to by a shorter more ambiguous form of the name
this property is unique to
a c structure f structure pair is a valid lfg representation only if it satisfies the nonbranching dominance uniqueness coherence and completeness conditions
semantic types are coded in the sense feature 1generation issues are fully discussed in
recent treatments of selectional restrictions have been probabilistic in and estimation of the relevant probabilities has required corpus based counts of the number of times word senses or concepts appear in the different argument positions of verbs
winnow is known to learn efficiently any linear threshold function and to be robust in the presence of various kinds of noise and in cases where no linear threshold function can make perfect classifications while still maintaining its abovementioned dependence on the number of total and relevant
in this paper we present all unsupervised approach to lexical acquisition within the minimum description length mdl with a goodness measure namely the description length gain dlg which is formulated following classic information
one is that the learning results of previous studies are not presented in a comparable manner for example as noted by as well
in specifying the equations we exploit techniques used in the parsing of incomplete
we use the longman dictionary of contemporary english lodce which contains two levels of sense distinction the broad homograph level and the more fine grained level of sense distinction
figure NUM projected links on multi word terms the hieraxchy is extracted1539963
as a cl reviewer points out investigate rule redundancy in cfgs estimated from treebanks
for a more detailed description see
one of the present authors has discussed kilgarriff s figures and argued that they are not in fact as gloomy as he suggests
before the filters or partial taggers are applied the text is tokenised lemmatised split into sentences and part of speech tagged using the brill part of speech
lochbaum developed an algorithm for modeling discourse using this sharedplan model and showed how information seeking dialogues could be modeled in terms of attempts to satisfy knowledge pre1 although the examples that illustrate core s response generation process in this paper are all taken from the university course advisement domain the strategies that we identified can easily be applied to other collaborative planning domains
proposals for beliefs of the first type while wh questions and yes no questions produce proposals for the second and third types of beliefs respectively s in order to provide the necessary information for performing proposal evaluation and response generation we hypothesize a recognition algorithm based on that infers agents intentions from their utterances
the possible combinations of these values produced by the evaluate belief algorithm are shown in table NUM NUM in cases NUM and NUM the system accepts rejects bel regardless of whether the pieces of NUM in allen the body of a recipe could contain a set of goals to be achieved or a set of actions to be performed
e because of all these environment laws you re not allowed anymore to burn the reed or to drive it off the ditch
to distinguish word meanings we use the top NUM semantic tags included in
modelexplainer takes data from graphical object oriented data models and from this generates a textual description of the model
plandoc takes the data from a simulation log file and from this produces a report of the explored simulation options
lfs takes statistical data from labor force surveys and from this produces a report on employment statistics over the given period
in drafter ii described above the domain model and the generator are implemented in prolog while the interface is implemented
which works only on treebank trees ete provides a more general and powerful search mechanism for a complex database
reference to abstract objects in general seem to require maintaining information about the events and situations described by a text on the stack see e.g.
so called return pops which are pronouns that signal a return to a superordinate discourse segment were and then in detail
the relation between g s s and rst s notion of structure has been analyzed by among others moore and paris i NUM
following the standard definition in information the ic of a word
we implemented meta modules to interface to the genetic algorithm driver and to combine different salience factors into an overall score similar to
in this research we employed a variant of tf idf score used in a popular information retrieval package
the bottom up generation bug algorithm requires every rule to have such a head except lexical entries
suggest that a content word is closely associated with some words in its context
because we employ a supervised training process no sophisticated parameter estimation procedure such as the baum welch is necessary
the particular phenomenon of paycheck anaphora is though he uses only a rather simplified centering model for this work
thus we suggest that the insights presented in have a simpler explanation
their algorithm table NUM consists of three basic steps as described by walker iida
for more information on compositional semantic operations on ltag derivation trees see
in fact walker iida hypothesize that the cf ranking criteria are the only language dependent factors within the centering model
rambow was the first to apply the centering methodology to german aiming at the description of information structure aspects underlying scrambling and topicalization
word british national corpus with the following corpus query tools cqp corpus query a general corpus query processor for complex queries with any number and combination of annotated information types including part of speech tags morphosyntactic tags lemmas and sentence boundaries
in a decision tree is trained on a small number of NUM features concerning anaphor type grammatical function recency morphosyntactic agreement and subsuming concepts
NUM articles were sampled from the acquisition set in the reuters and tagged to identify instances of nine fields
rather than the absolute difficulty of a field we speak of the suitability of a learner s inductive bias for a
rote memorizes field instances seen during training and only makes predictions when the same fragments are encountered in novel documents
the described method is an improvement of resulting in an improved training and a faster search organization
propose a working hypothesis based on the surface order
one of the most basic properties of tree adjoining grammars tags is that they have an extended domain of locality edol
possible algorithms include genetic algorithms q learning td leaming and adaptive dynamic programming
showed that the technique of statistical tagging can be shifted to the next level of syntactic processing and is capable of assigning grammatical functions
results for chunking penn treebank data were previously presented by several authors
for our baseline we used smart version as information retrieval engine with the inc ltc weighting method
our syntactic relation based thesaurus is based on the method although hindle did not apply it to information retrieval
and there is a body of work on the use of finite state devices closely related to regular expressions for modelling phonological phenomena and for speech processing cf
7in hpsg for example the representation for the formet is strictly based on the coindexation between syntactic and argument values whereas the treatment for the latter assumes an event structure for predication and intersects it with the optional adjunts see
they are distinguished from pustejovsky s true arguments t arg that is the syntactically realized parameters of the lexical by means of the syntactic level at which they are declared in the valence list or in the set of nonlocal elements
relying only on your own intuitions inevitably creates a biased resource indeed report low agreement between human judges carrying out this kind of task
as such it resembles the parser of the grammar development system attribute language engine ale of
more efficient approaches exist NUM
comprise the planning of a rough structure of the target language utterance the determination of sentence borders sentence type topicalization theme rheme organization of sentential units focus control utilization of nominalized or infinitival style as well as triggering the generation of anaphora and lexical choice
comparison with ehara s ehara also used the maximum entropy model and a set of similar kinds of features to ours
in earlier systems such as sentences with conjunction are formed in the strategic component as discourse level optimizations
our deletion algorithm is an extension to the directionality constraint which is based on syntactic structure
casper uses a representation influenced by lexical functional grammar and semantic
substitutiona d leticms insertions correctt ubstitutiollsjrdc c tion dled by very simple even finite state approaches if one adheres to the principle of chunking the input into small and hence easily manageable
such analysis proceeds in similar fashion to the intention based methodology outlined in but there are some crucial differences
the trains dialogue was taken from the trains NUM corpus by the university of rochester
we used as starting point o donnell s which we improved significantly
thus we filter each virtual document produced by the document construction process through the morphological processor of the bell labs to extract the root form of each word in the corpus
carletta suggests that the units over which the kappa statistic is computed affects the outcome
most if not all statistical machine translation systems employ a word based alignment model vogel ney which treats words in a sentence as independent entities and ignores the structural relationship among them
the operations on the focus space stack depend upon subsidiary rela null computational linguistics volume NUM number NUM tionships between sharedplans in the same way that describe the operations as depending upon dsp relationships
the theory has been applied in probabilistic language modeling mark natural language processing berger della pietra della pietra della as well as computational vision zhu
plausibility and p NUM knowledge of what kinds of linguistic changes are likely and what are p NUM and in the case of chinese insights of the chinese philological tradition are all used when deciding the viability of a linguistic reconstruction
srinivas discussed a lightweight dependency analyzer which assigns dependencies assuming that each word has been assigned a unique supertag
we have implemented s unified approach to reference resolution and discourse structure in the systern of language understanding described
previous algorithms for compiling rewrite rules into transducers have followed by introducing special marker symbols markers into strings in order to mark off candidate regions for replacement
from the view point of semantic roles of nouns there have been several related research conducts the mental space theory is discussing the functional behavior of the generative lexicon theory accounts for the problem of creative word senses based on the qualia structure of a and macleod et al
the referring pan is generated by the referring while the non referring pan is generated by a subtype of the aggregation process called embedding which selects suitable facts and realizes them as components within the structure of a referring expression
for example the definition of one rule that embeds a prepositional in the definition priority is the order in which the rule should be tried where those rules producing simpler syntactic forms always have higher priority scott constraints is the restrictions that must be satisfied by the predicate and arguments of the embedded fact and the realisation of the referring part
constraint as an efficient constraint transformation method
NUM in fact in some cases linson treated a complex sentence as two units for processing and in others he treated a complex sentence as a single unit
he was able to apply his algorithm to a corpus and showed that his algorithm outperforms that of brennan friedman using the definition of utterance
for proposes a simple pronoun resolution algorithm that proposes referents for pronouns that it finds by walking a parse tree of a sentence and the previous sentences in a particular order
in some cases the leaf node would be associated with a specific prediction e.g.
cg works on a text where all possible morphological interpretations have been assigned to each word form by the engtwol morphological analyser voutilainen
the study was done on the timit corpus fisher a collection of american english read sentences with correct time aligned acousticphonetic and orthographic word aligned transcriptions NUM the corpus contains NUM sentences spoken by NUM speakers from NUM different dialect divisions across the united states
van der show that not ignoring the low count instances is often crucial to performance in machine learning systems for natural language
riley implements a similar system using a different method for tree induction but estimates the probability of an uttered phoneme given a phoneme context and a partial phone context whereas we are inferring an intended phoneme from an uttered phone context
the contexts for all the phones were fed into an inductive inference program by in order to find functions of the context attributes i.e. acoustic features that are good predictors of the phoneme intended by a speaker when s he utters a particular phone
previous and used classification and regression trees cart on a large number of different features of the corpus such as genderi dialect and speaking rate to obtain pronunciation information of intended phonemes
for example the condition nec semiconductor produce retrieves an article containing nec formed a technical alliance with b company and b company produced semiconductor x mine et al and satoh et al reported that this problem leads to retrieval noise and unnecessary results
jacquemin reported similar conceptual relations for insertion and coordination variants
yarowsky suggests that the sense of an adjective is almost wholly determined by the noun it modifies
the boas project boas is a semi automatic knowledge elicitation system that guides a team of two people through tile process of de veloping the static knowledge sources for a moderatequality broad coverage mt system from any low density language into english
this work was done while the first author was visiting the institute for research in cognitive science and while the second author was a postdoctoral fellow there nsf sbr NUM
thus the tiueaded structure is more complicated than the hierarchical ee like structure posited in cn and
in contrast to these approaches we define segment boundaries independently from reference resolution so that in this respect our work is in line with grnsz definitions
as argue for a correlation between the information structure of utterances and centering
proposed a method for choosing target words using mono lingual corpora
articles in called test nyt and test reu respectively
athis focus value is defined and termed differently by different authors calls it the presuppositional set the alternative set and the ground
it is assumed that discourses are composed of constituent segments each of which consists of a sequence of utterances
another probabilistic lc parser investigated which utilized an lc parsing architecture not a transformed grammar also got a performance boost tailed in measured efficiency in terms of total edges popped
nijholt characterized parsing strategies in terms of announce points the point at which a parent category is announced identified relative to its children and the point at which the rule expanding the parent is identified
this parallels the two different proposed for concepts
in this section the behavior of japanese adnominal constituents is classified into three types depending on how the semantic representation of noun phrases is generated from information in the lexicon
on consideration of the syntactic relations between adnominal constituents and their head nouns we find that some adnominal constituents can appear both in the attributive and predicative
we trained and tested our methods on the latin american newswire articles from muc NUM
bell labs corrjcm cs who doug ssort c of manber algorithm which took only NUM hours
the index parsing algorithm is described
NUM examples of structures of the kind vb n1 prep n2 were extracted from the penn treebank wall street journal
instead of using hand crafted semantic classes uses word classes obtained via mutual information clustering mic in a training corpus
these phenomena have been difficult to handle in earlier NUM ft
barri presented the idea of concept clustering for knowledge integration
in found NUM NUM of words misspelt NUM NUM in NUM email messages leading to about NUM NUM of the NUM sentences havingerrors
however as pointed out in the effect of this particular optimization method depends on the size of the tag set
so many were produced because chapter generated a semantic concept whether it was semantically ill formed or not to assist with the repair of ill formed sentences
we used the edr japanese corpus version to train the language model
the linking of ldoce and wn is in principle quite similar to knight approach in the pangloss project
to illustrate this algorithm we consider example NUM which has two different final utterances ld and ld
in the first experiment i compare my algorithm with the bfp algorithm which was in a second experiment extended by the constraints for complex sentences as
this is because the satisfiability of the completeness condition depends not only on the results of previous steps of a derivation but also on the following steps
previous research has noted that agents do not merely believe or disbelieve a proposition instead they often consider some beliefs to be stronger less defeasible than others
recently we have introduced several improvements to these
this is called the assertional level and dealt with in detail
thus local as opposed to global evaluation seems to guarantee the finite stateness of verb paradigm are triggered by the tendency to avoid sequences of vowels vv hiatus or consonants cc e.g.
the evaluation proceeding chosen is based on the measures used in muc
the measures simcosine simdice and simdacard are versions of similarity measures commonly used in information retrieval
if whenever NUM g2 and g3 g4 also g u g3 g2 u g4
optimal morphology om is a finite state formalism that unifies concepts from optimality theory ot prince and declarative phonology dp scobbie to describe morphophonological alternations in inflectional morphology
the ad hoc modality retrieves relevant texts from a relative static set of documents but in contrast admits changing information
there were several experiments studying some specific issues such as sense mapping or attribute transferring
the fourth and final system is the mxpost system as henceforth tagger e for entropy
the format of the declarative lexicon and of the grammar rules is that of the realpro realizer which we discussed in
in a departure from we used a bayesian modification of neyman allocation to do this
in fact we experimented using the coco search algorithm with per class variations not presented in specifically with different sets of subproperties e.g. pce with s NUM
specifically the model of independence between each word w when satisfying a constraint in sj and the classification variable is assessed using the likelihood ratio statistic g NUM
this process is the reverse operation of the noun phrase decomposition described in
have been found to reproduce some of the smoothing inherent to statistical back off models
new information is the locus of information related to the sentential nuclear stress and identified in regard to the previous context as the piece of information with which the context is updated after uttering the utterance
the perception and communication groups have previously been idestiffed with respect to aspect in and those and psych movement for general purposes beyond aspectual
in dialogue systems speech acts seem to provide a reasonable first approximation of the utterance meaning they abstract over possible linguistic realisations and dealing with the illocutionary force of utterances can also be regarded as a domain independent aspect of communication NUM 2of course most dialogue systems include domain dependent acts to cope with the particular requirements of the domain
these reports were parsed with the english slot resulting in NUM NUM clauses that were parsed fully with no self diagnostic errors error messages were produced on some of this corpus complex sentences
the temporal relationship is between two events and can be different have seizure i i certain temporal adjuncts and tenses are constrained by and contribute to the aspectual class of a
as in discourse is organized by the interlocutors goals and intentions and the plans or strategies which conversational participants develop to achieve them
since the particular treatment of syntactic ambiguities is orthogonal to the possiblity of using underspecifled semantic representations the same extension could also be applied for a semantic based transfer approach on flat representations as advocated for example in and
but show that the lappin and leass algorithm still provides good results NUM even without complete parse
on the other hand if we devide long sentences into smaller units thus increase the number of sentences in the text we may have finer and better summarisation
the word error rate is defined as NUM substitutions deletions insertions correct substitutions deletions
finally we compare these results with the ones obtained with conventional n gram models the model size is thus the number of distinct n uplets of words observed using for this purpose the cmu cambridge toolkit
in our experiments the class assignment is performed by maximizing the mutual information between adjacent phrases following the line described in with only the modification that candidates to clustering are phrases instead of words
table NUM also illustrates another motivation for phrase retrieval and clustering apart from word prediction which is to address issues related to topic identification dialogue modeling and language understanding
the multigram approach was introduced in and in it was used to derive variable length phrases under the assumption of independence of the phrases
lexical amalgamation of quantifier storage was proposed by
in qstore and backgr sets are phrasally amalgamated
on the basis of this and on the basis of a restrietedanalysis of natural speech and intuitive judgments of invented texts we conclude that the use of sentential pronouns in english and norwegian can be explained by the theory proposed in gundel which links different referring forms to the assumed cognitive status of the referent
for more details of this algorithm see
NUM NUM coordinate structure the limit of dependency in wg word strives to account for all grammatical relations by head dependent relations
we also empirically investigated how communicative modes influence the content and style of referring actions made in dialogues
the key insight and claim of the finite state approach to is that both morphotactics and variation grammars can be written as regular expressions which are compiled and implemented on computers as finite state automata
form i vocalizations are in fact idiosyncratic for each root and those for the imperfect active are more troublesome but the same kind of formalism applies NUM if patterns are allowed to contain non radical consonants as in the then the definitions must be complicated slightly to prevent radicals from intersecting with the non radical
3this excision step has parallels to the em it step used in the chart parsing approaches for the associative lambek calculus although the latters differs in that there is no removal of the relevant subformula i.e. the em itting formula is not simplified remaining higher order
NUM application NUM glue language deduction in a line of research beginning with a fragment of linear logic is used as a glue language for assembling sentence meanings for lfg analyses in a deductive fashion enabling for example an direct treatment of quantifier scoping without need of additional mechanisms
null introduction implementing a linguistic theory such as dependency grammar leads to many types of problems see the discussion in p 121ff among others
like nag the systems described in consider focus of attention during argument presentation
plan stack after processing utterance NUM of the dialogue in
its strengths can be split into four key issues namely portability security robustness and ease of usage and distributed operation across the web
poesio and vieira a corpus based investigation of definite description use of the existing theories of definite descriptions the one that comes closest to accounting for all of the uses of definite descriptions that we observed
another system is similar to ours from a different perspective
the attraction of the current proposal integrated with meurers partial precompilation approach is that we can do justice to the facts of semiproductivity and also achieve an efficient and maximally nonredundant encoding of the lexicon
as already mentioned we are in the course of implementing a system capable of performing the classification
however in we adopt the position that such rules are not fully reducible to operations on semantic representations but rather concern the interplay of syntax and semantics in bounded dependency constructions
however for the purposes of linking this restriction on the expressivity of lexical rules is a virtue rather than a argues on quite independent grounds that linking rules should apply incoherent linked dative tdfs
for discussions of lexical conditions on bridging references
our ultimate goal is speech translation aiming at a tight integration of speech recognition and
similar aims are pursued by but differently approached
there currently exist more than NUM search and selection services on the world wide web such as dec all of which allow keyword searches for recent news
plandoc mckeown mckeown generates summaries of the activities of telephone planning engineers using linguistic summarization both to order its input messages and to combine them into single sentences
second a crucial assumption of this algorithm is that speech planning consists of conceptual planning and linguistic planning proceeding in a sequential fashion this is a well established argument in and the former proceeds in a unit by unit fashion though the picture is more complicated for the latter
researches on knowledge storage and processing in human memory in cognitive psychology have favored a dual memory system i.e. working memory wm and long term memory ltm and a tripartite taxonomy of ltm into procedural semantic and episodic storage
the second is a recently discovered that makes it possible for us to identify the top k translations in efficient o m n log n kn time where the wfsa contains n states and m arcs
using linguistic features described above extracted from training data as inputs we use c5 to generate decision trees
also following we have implemented a general composition algorithm for constructing an integrated model p xlz from models p xly and p y z treating wfsas as wfsts with identical inputs and outputs
figure NUM vocal tract and the
during the past few years remarkable improvements have been made for high quality text to speech systems van
a more detailed description of the architecture is given in
a parser based on the torisawa s parsing algorithm
chunks or base nps
now while itt s rules for propositionhood hardly constitute an account of grammaticality in english the combination in itt of assertions of well formedness a type and theoremhood t a re introduces matters of information content over and above grammatical form which have been applied among other places to discourse semantics in particular anaphora
following p w is implemented in a weighted finite state acceptor wfsa and the other distributions in weighted finite state transducers wfsts
m gross have proposed a preprocessing step of the text which groups up to NUM of the words of the text into compound utterances
the tail recursion or composition optimization permits right branching structures to be parsed with bounded stack depth
is the target word for a discussion on the appropriateness of this procedure
all trecs have used the pooling method sparck jones to assemble the relevance assessments
this paper will extend upon his discussion and describe its role in ilex a text generation system which delivers descriptions of entities on line from an underlying knowledgebase
especially model i and model NUM
further details regarding these indicators and their linguistic motivation is
the range of slots in a systemic analysis of the np in the order they typically appears below and figure NUM shows a typical np structure
however there is still a need for rules beyond these general schemata in order to account for in multimodal input specifically with respect to complex unimodal gestures
dagan itai used a bilingual lexicon and a monolingual corpus to save the need for translating the corpus
a typical example is the use of thesaurus functions such as synonymy and hyponymy to extend the notion of word sharing across text units as exemplified in and with reference to wordnet
in an error driven transformation based edtb a set of patternaction templates that include predicates that test for features of words appearing in the context of interest are defined
part of speech disambiguation techniques pos are often used prior to parsing to eliminate or substantially reduce the part of speech ambiguity
much work on controlled languages has been motivated by the ambition to find the fight tradeoff between expressiveness and processability
tidhar reports an initial experiment in taking the semantic output generated from a small set s of english specifications and converting it into ctl
our first step in developing an english to ctl conversion system was to build a prototype based on the alvey natural language tools grammar
hpsg cat2 different attributes in a fb can be forced to always have the same values by assigning the same variable as their values they share the same structure
are based on processing time accuracy and recall which in fact do not differentiate between the strength of the form l m and the strength of the grammar actually implemented
this result is comparable with the results
we propose a new theory of the relationship between accent and attention based on an enriched taxonomy of given new information status provided by both the local centering and global focus stack model attentional state models in grosz and sidner s
the use of abnlp in a framework for argumentative discourse planning is discussed in more detail in
another shortcoming is highlighted by a dissonance between rst and argument analysis see for a review
for a detailed description of a method to construct such a hierarchy
a large scale semantic database such as seems to have a great potential for this task
but roberts argues that relevance is also crucial in presupposition resolution broadly construed to include anaphora resolution the interpretation of ellipsis and as well as lexically and syntactically triggered presuppositions
for example analyze du rayonnement analysis of the radiation is not semantically related with analyze de l influence analysis of the influence even particular a complete description of the generalization patterns process see the following related publication
for further investigation let us discuss similar xperim mtal results reported by where a bilingual dictionary produced ti om japanese english keyword pairs in the nacsis documents is used for query translation
finally the ir engine computes the similarity between t query and each document in the surrogates based on the vector space model and sorts document according to the similarity in descending order
to counter problem NUM we use the compound word translation method we proposed which selects appropriate translations based on the probability of occurrence of each combination of base words in the target language
only two of the central memory hierarchy questions for computer architectures are relevant to the discourse issues walker raises replacement strategy and how information is found in the cache
the first of these is the mechanism of holes and plugging which originates in the hole
this partitioning between semantic content and semantic structure is modelled on the kind of representational metalanguage employed in udrs to express underspecification
this paper shows how a meta grammar defining structure at the meta level is useful in the case of such operations in particular how it solves problems in the current definition of synchronous caused by ignoring such structure in mapping between grammars for applications such as translation
the automaton shown here corresponds most closely
this work employs many of the techniques used by for performing query based summarization
although analogies can be found in the data mining literature e.g. referring to classification of astronomical phenomena as data mining i believe when applied to text categorization this is a misnomer
summarised below are some issues specific to anaphora resolution in spoken dialogues see also who mention some of these problems in their account of the centering model
examples include automatic augmentation of wordnet by identifying lexicosyntactic patterns that unambiguously indicate those and automatic acquisition of subcategorization data from large text
sw2041 NUM NUM of the anaphors are vague vagpro vag dem in the sense that they refer to the general topic of conversation and as opposed to discourse deictic anaphors do not have a specific clause as an antecedent e.g. NUM b NUM i mean the baby is like seventeen months and she just screams
this uniform method of specifying grammar transformations is similar to but clearer than similar techniques used with
progol is freely available and
pointers in various forms allow one to efficiently represent infinite circular references
given a predicate c we choose p0 and pl to minimize z show that z is minimized when we let
particularities of the qualia structure of nouns regulate the acceptability or unacceptability of leaving a metonymic relation implicit in context of the words engaged
in addition to drawing on our earlier work cited above we employ techniques such as paraphrasing knott s substitution test analysis of typical distributions using corpora and contrastive studies
instead data mining applications tend to be semi automated discovery of trends and patterns across very large datasets usually for the purposes of decision making
accordingly we advocate a flexible order of decisiommaking as it can be realized in a blackboard based architecture such as proposed by diogenes and healthdoc
for example in clustering pp heads according to wordnet synsets produced only a improvement in a pp disambiguation task
we generalized the values of the case slots within these case frames using the method proposed in to obtain class based case frame data
use a similar model with a different parsing algorithm
lexical cohesion is the most common linguistic mechanism used for discourse
the initial position of a paragraph is thus a key heuristic for general purpose document
it seems rather that the progression of the cooking event depends on the internal structure of the associated rs the event develops as the chicken is more and more cooked for a similar analysis4
the treebank grammar was and the parser in
we will refer to non anaphoric definite noun phrases as existential
the hebrew script is highly ambiguous a fact that results in many part of speech tags for almost every
the first syntactic analyzer for hebrew is described but its grammar is implicit in a software system
previously we conducted query expansion experiments using wordnet mandala et and found limitations which can be summarized as follows
to further analyze the poor performance of the log likelihood ratio on this task NUM tokens con4syntactically speaking benefactive for pps are not arguments but and can appear on any verb with which they are semantically compatible
srv constructs rules from general to specific as in
with the two heuristics we can accurately acquire word co occurrences within syntactic relations from the pos tagged corpus without
our system is similar with respect to similarity measure which allows it to extract high order contextual relationship
proposed an extension to similarity based methods by means of an iterative process at the learning stage with small corpus
in yarowsky NUM the definition words were used as initial sense indicators automatically tagging the target word examples containing them
this result is clearly in contrast to studies which conclude that humans are not very reliable at this kind of task
the ces linkage specifications are currently being updated to conform to xml
by application ill natural language generation nlg e.g.
to measure the trade off between precision and recall we calculated the f measure defined as
this research is motivated by insights from rhetorical structure theory rst
this approach is taken by some other
using thesaurus categories directly as a coarse sense division may seem to be a
this is done by either computing a posteriori probabilities for all possible or by passing the weighted fragments through a neural network classifier wright
traumatiq is a module that infers a physician s plan for managing patient care compares it to traumaid s plan and critiques significant differences between them
however once concepts have been introduced in the integrated text plan focusing suggest that other text plans containing these concepts be included in the integrated plan as well
furthermore as explained in the ssd methodology can also be used to compare local focusing frameworks
for more about the kullback leibler divergence we refer the readers to
while there are similarities between their approach and the one presented here the two differ in significant ways unlike in the current approach asher and take all connections of both asserted and presupposed material to be structural attachments through rhetorical relations
among the work that reported quantitative evaluation results most are not based on learning from an annotated
the result generalizes that of s nchez and has a less involved proof
in an efficient hpsg parser is proposed and our preliminary experiments show that the parsing time of the effident parser is about three times shorter than that of the naive one
we had previously hoped to evaluate the accuracy of our treebank induduced subcategorization probabilities by comparing them with the comlex hand coded probabilities but we used a different set of subcategorization frames than comlex
in that case it will be possible to implement different steps by different strategies e.g. by deterministic or non deterministic transducers or bimachines
before describing the algorithm it will be helpful to have at our disposal a few general tools most of which were described already in
in our experiments we use the photograph news in the web page called aulos distributed by the mainichi
suppose that the skin color distribution complies with the gaussian distribution in r g b space
improvements and extensions to this algorithm have been and
compare another such system the one described to traditional human teaching in a controlled evaluation procedure and reach the conclusion that tile corpus based computer assisted method yields slightly better learning results
such a method of satisfaction is called constraint
over feature structures for transfer see
transfer on packed representations is considered in
sheffer hazan developed a bipartite clustering algorithm based on description length considerations for purposes of knowledge summarization and text mining
work by cohen et on pronunciation used a couple of set sentences for multiple speakers but did not cover a wide range of words and thus different phone contexts
table NUM describes selected symbols from the arpabet symbol used for representing phonemes and phones in timit NUM a typical alignment of words in a sentence is given in figure NUM
the actual translation operation is performed in the transfer module as a mapping between semantic representations of the source and target languages see
in this spirit all access to and manipulation of the information in a vit is mediated by an abstract data type adt
resolution consists of an assignment of la3we owe the term minimal recursion to but the mechanism they describe was already in use in udrss
present a spelling grammar checker that adjusts its strategy dynamically taking into account different lexical agents dictionaries the user and the kind of text
we take as our reference point the verbmobil research prototype but this is only one of a sequence of fully integrated running systems
passive is generally used in english to emphasize the undergoer to keep the topic in subject position and or to de emphasize the identity of
these could be used to bootstrap each other relying on the heuristic that only one sense is used within any discourse gale
for instance we may learn that the trigram tagger is most accurate at tagging the word up or that the unigram tagger does best at tagging the
reparandum onsets tend to be at and in particular at boundaries where a coordinated constituent can
in the following example the words should and the are preferred by levelt s coordinated and hence should have a higher score
we should note that extensive research in this field exists and we plan to make use of one of the proposed methods wacholder to solve this problem
rau brandow report that statistical summaries of individual news articles were rated lower by evaluators than summaries formed by simply using the lead sentence or two from the article
summaries that consist of sentences plucked from texts have been shown to be useful indicators of content but they are often judged to be highly unreadable brandow
the overall architecture of our summarization system given earlier in figure NUM draws on research in software agents to allow connections to a variety of different types of data sources
the centering model itself makes predictions about pronoun generation only in a specific instance that where rule NUM is appficeble
the ordering constraints we supply account for all of the types of anaphora mentioned above including pro nominal anaphora
on the other hand if the examples consist of raw sentences with no extra structural information grammar induction is very difficult even theoretically
such relationships are the objects of study in relational grammar
for finding a good initial parameter set suggested first estimating the probabilities with a set of regular grammar rules
we use the notion of a chunk similar namely a contiguous non recursive phrase
in order to analyze turkish distinguishes between the information structure of utterances and centering since both constructs are assigned different functions for text understanding
reports a comparable per word accuracy of his cass2 chunk parser NUM NUM
earlier work found that nearly NUM of definite descriptions had no prior referents and we found that number to be even higher NUM in our corpus
passoneau constructed input for a prototype generator by hypothesising a cb for each proposition in a text based on the salience of entities in a situation
however as shows this shortcoming can be remedied using higher order colored unification hocu rather than straight hou
the first tool is a graphic graph editor
neumeyer et al describe a system that evaulates students pronunciation in text independent speech
NUM applicability of supertagging to other lexicalized grammars although we have presented supertagging in the context of ltag it is applicable to other lexicalized grammar formalisms such hpsg and lfg
this paper proposes an expansion of set of primitive constraints available within the primitive optimality theory
for examples of how the system can be applied to the financial advisement and library information retrieval domains see section NUM NUM and to the air traffic control domain see
to represent the different types of knowledge necessary for modeling a collaborative dialogue we use an enhanced version of the tripartite model presented in to capture the intentions of the dialogue participants
however walker has argued that when taking into account resource limitations and processing costs effective use of iru s informationally redundant utterances can reduce effort during collaborative planning
dop models for a number of richer representations have been explored van but these approaches have remained context free in their generative power
unfortunately this is not always the case and the above methodology suffers from the weaknesses pointed out concerning parse parse match procedures
similarly an avm editor might allow type constraints as discussed to be automatically verified
used a simple mechanism to mark the boundaries of nps
to our knowledge the only wide coverage morphological lexicon readily available is for the english language karp schabes
in this section we present an evaluation of automatically constructed thesauri with two manually compiled thesauri namely wordnetl NUM and roget thesaurus
earley exhibits most of the complexities we wish to discuss
it was shown in that a similarity based smoothing method achieved much better results than backoff smoothing methods in word sense disambiguation
similarly increases in number and duration of silence regions are associated with disfluencies self repairs and more careful speech as well as with spoken corrections
there are existing english to ctl systems which do however such as that of
pstfs has been implemented by combining two existing programming languages the concurrent object oriented programm ng language and the sequential programming language lilfes
the pebls algorithm can be approximated to a certain extent by combining ibi ig with the modified value difference metric mvdm of
present a wide variety of mathematical and logical operators within the context of the aq17 dc1 system
NUM since the traversal must 2see for definitions of modifier and predicative auxiliaries
another possible way to develop parallel nlp systems with tfss is to use a full concurrent logic programming language
for a discussion of statistically filtering tag forests using semantic dependencies
an approach similar to the one described here was developed by
language is learned in context through communication and
for details about our scheme see di for details about features we added to dr but that are not relevant for this paper see di
pronouns are only available for the most salient entities whereas demonstratives can be used to shift the focus of attention to a different entity
two dialogues sw2041 sw4877 were used to train the two annotators the authors and three further dialogues for testing sw2403 sw3117 sw3241
we use the task definition provided in the met2 guidelines multilingual entity task the formal definition will
ultimately this type of specification is interestingly reminiscent of proposals for rule to rule semantics for example where NUM for completeness a treatment of terminals is required and can be given straightforwardly in terms of arbitrary sequences over a limited alphabet
if such generalization of vocalization appears tenuous the alternative is simply to keep the vowels in the patterns resulting in a two way intersection of roots and
this is comparable to the indexing of terms in relational databases e.g. the sicstus prolog external
for illustration let us assume following analysis fairly closely that arabic stems consist of a root like ktb a consonant vowel template such as cvcvc and a vocalization like ui
the tables NUM and NUM show the translation quality of the statistical machine translation system described in using no classes word at all mono lingually and bilingually optimized word classes
as an example of the first kind of constraint consider the head feature principle of hpsg
various clustering techniques have been proposed which perform automatic word clustering optimizing a maximum likelihood criterion with iterative clustering algorithms
pm can also choose among different unification algorithms that have been designed to carefully control and minimize the amount of copying needed with non deterministic parsing provide a better match between the character null istics of the unifiers and those of the linguistic processors
intertwined with morpho syntaxic constraints and later semantic ones in order to choose a character from the set as referent of the re
the derivation checkers or tree editors and can be viewed as a mode in which each action by a user is verified for consistency with respect to a grammar
these proposals employ a labeled deductive system whereby types in proofs are associated with labels which record proof information for use in ensuring correct inferencing
we have shown that corpus frequencies can be used to quantify linguistic intuitions and lexical generalizations such semantic classification
using the dictionary definition co occurrence data of concepts rather than words is collected from a relatively small corpus to tackle the data sparseness problem
i shall also briefly note points of comparison with systems discussed by in a survey of applied nlg systems and conclude with some remarks on the applicability of my proposals to the reference architecture n envisaged by
documentation driven projects are described as a degenerate of requirements driven processes a case of bureaucracy gone mad in the face of software
pronominalisafion decisions using ct and so have located centering as part of re generation while have a centering module which forms part of sentence planning and seeks to realize the center as subject in successive sentences
no official recommendation has been made in the dri for the so called coreference level although the drama has sometimes been discussed for this purpose
the only structure based editors we are aware of with comparable generality are those such as which interpret an sgml dtd to determine allowable material in a context dependent way
for example the dialogue in figure NUM is concerned with modifying a kl one network
describe a bayesian plan recognition system that uses marker passing as a method for focusing attention on a manageable portion of the space of all possible plans
it is intended that the procedures described in this paper will be implemented in iconoclast an authoring tool which enables domain experts to create a knowledge base through a sequence of interactive choice and generates hiexarchitally structured text according to various stylistic constraints
this is the most elementary level NUM unl universal
our architecture requires that the linguistic analysis module is capable of delivering not just analyses of complete utterances but also of phrases and even of lexical items in the special interface format of vits verbmobil interface terms
therefore lexical types can not persist after inflectional rules are applied unless the rule is split so that one subrule applies to each type see for example for further discussion
we call this robust semantic processing since the structures being dealt with are semantic representations vits and the rules applied refer primarily to the semantic content of fragments though they also consider syntactic and prosodic information e.g. about irregular boundaries
contrast the lexical rule approach to bounded dependencies with one that treats each construction independently and characterizes relations between constructions somewhat vaguely in terms of inheritance
we will not discuss this further here but see for discussion of the related phenomenon of ambiguous derivational affixes
calcagno develops an algorithm for improving the notation for lexical rules by eliminating the need to specify what is copied from input to output
turkish is an agglutinative language where a sequence of inflectional and derivational morphemes get affixed to a
hindle only extracted subject verb and object verb relations while we also extract adjective noun and noun noun relations in the who applied his syntactically based thesaurus to information retrieval with mixed results
NUM the accounts purport to describe the phonological histories of a single database of chinese characters and their readings in modern
studies of spatial and temporal lexeme acquisition among young children native in various european and middle eastera languages indicate that subject groups of mean age as low as NUM months may correctly r associate pictures with spoken sentences such as the parrot is in on the cage
usher and niebur s model of feature based attention receives input from the entire visual field through such activated it cortex cell assemblies with the search task guided by weak tol down activation of the favored feature class from a similar representation in working memory here taken to be pre frontal cortex
for example the output of lexical learning from an utterance as a character sequence and is a hierarchical chunking of the utterance
our purpose here is to show how a simplified computational model of discourse reference can be implemented and give significant results for reference resolution we showed previously that it was also relevant for pronoun resolution
each lexeme describes a locative relationship between a special potentially mobile object known as the trajector tr and a static reference object known as the landmark lm
as will be clear from the graphic the strong positive response to activation in the center of the upper region ensures that the map lrthis approach is based upon evidence from cognitive neuroscience for a review
but for various reasons the work on this aspect was discontinued
next we used both sets of graphs the original word graphs and hypergraphs as input to the speech parser used
argmax itp w ls tdp si NUM ti l is to NUM c r s o which can be resolved using the
the tokenizer of our application is non deterministic which is valuable for the treatment of some ambiguous input string NUM but in this paper we deal with fixed multiword expressions
many of these can be lexically or syntactically identified as the ets gmat research shows
the hypernym NUM any column can be used to compare results to
rather than opportunistically adding as much background information that can fit in the available compression our approach adds background information from the source text to the draft based on an information weighting function
summarization can be viewed as a text totext reduction operation involving three main condensation operations selection of salient portions of the text aggregation of information from different portions of the text and abstraction of specific information with more general information
in section NUM we shortly review the single word based approach described in with some recently iraplemented extensions allowing for one to many alignments
recently the u s government conducted a largescale evaluation of summarization systems as part of its tipster text processing program which included both an extrinsic relevance assessment evaluation as well as an intrinsic coverage of key ideas evaluation
in our implementation accessing an arbitrary glb takes less than NUM NUM msec compared to NUM msec of expensive bit vector computation following a which also produces a lot of memory garbage
table NUM comparison of different tuggers on the wsj corpus tbl and me
if this holds we can merge the set into a simpler structure keeping the common features and marking the distinct and mckeown kukich suggest
for instance combined a number of similar tuggers by way of a straightforward majority vote
a method for calculating o l more efficiently can be derived from the calculations given in
yarowsky learned discriminators for each roget s category saving the need to separate the training set into senses
our assumptions are based theory of contributions cf
as such it is likely to be interpreted as conveying some
NUM use of semantic features in the prosody concept mapping previous work has made use of this probabilistic model of the relationships between prosody the acoustic signal and information but only insofar as information structure could be captured using syntax and related features
in order to calculate feature vectors of domains all explanations in the encyclopedia are performed morphological analysis by chasen
sekine proposed a method for selecting a suitable sentence from sentences which were extracted by a speech recognition system using statistical language
then nouns are extracted from newspaper articles by a morphological analysis system and frequency of each noun are counted
a simple way of computing lexical cohesion in a text is to segment the text into units e g sentences and to count non stop words NUM which co occur in each pair of distinct text units as shown in table NUM for the text in table NUM
this fact has been important to computational research on discourse since the
we designed the execution model by referring to the implementation of aquarius prolog an optimizing native code compiler for prolog
we currently have several different parsers for hpsg and hpsg grammars of japanese and english as follows a underspecified japanese grammar developed by our
vanderwende describes in detail the methodology used in the extraction of the semantic relations comprising mindnet
the intuitive content behind this comes from behaghel s first law p NUM
syntagmatic strategies for determining similarity have often been based on statistical analyses of large corpora that yield clusters of words occurring in similar bigram and trigram contexts e.g. as well as in similar predicateargument structure contexts e.g.
weighting schemes with similar goals are found in
report better perplexity results on the verbmobil corpus with their hmm based alignment model in comparison to model NUM of
for a discussion of the importance of establishing all referential links within a document for information extraction applications so that information about these entities can be merged NUM
experimentally evaluate and compare the performance of several human hyper linkers
these interactions can be formally expressed in the framework of attentional modeling by the following principles of interpretation the lexical form of a referring expression indicates the level of attentional processing i.e. pronouns involve local focusing while full lexical forms involve global focusing
the algorithm we used to identify the predominant senses is similar to the algorithm we introduced in which identities predominant senses of words using domaindependent semantic classifications and word net
other techniques that can be broadly categorized as language reuse are learning relations from on line and answering natural language questions using an on line
this result contrasts with castelli analysis that suggests that labeled examples are exponentially more valuable than unlabeled examples
an example given by is mary was amazed ann dewey was angry
a poet living in tel aviv figure NUM structural uses an iterative procedure to
for instance for the words it differs from that used by
the problem is not easy since as speech act theory points surface form is not a clear indicator of speaker intentions
this dimension characterizes the potential effect that an utterance ui has on the subsequent dialogue and roughly corresponds to the classical notion of an illocutionary
the usual method of limiting the number of parses that an ilts grammar assigns is to examine the effects of relaxing those constraints that represent likely sources of error by students and introduce new constraints into the grammar rules to block unlikely parses
the trains corpus is a collection of about NUM dialogues containing a total of NUM NUM speaker turns ldc upenn edu catalog
further explanation of how centering constraints can be integrated with our approach is
other resources such as comlex syntax dictionary and english verb classes and alternations evca can provide verb subcategorization information and syntactic paraphrases but they are indexed by words thus not suitable to use in generation directly
wordnet has been successfully applied in many human language related applications such as word sense disambiguation information retrieval and text categorization yet generation is among the fields in which the application of wordnet has rarely been explored
or the theory of focusing the careful reader will note that these dialogues contaln additional reference resolution problems such as one anaphora example ii and a nonplural antecedent for the example iii etc not discussed here for brevity
in his program met makes use of formal definitions of several kinds of metonymic relations met also allows chaining metonymic relations in order to fill in implicitly expressed knowledge
the results we got were consistently favorable as our system outperformed those closest in spirit and scisor by a gain in accuracy on the order of NUM
phrases such as so now firstly moreover and anyways can be used as
introduction introduced it the so called punctuality of achievements has been the object of many theoretical contests
a parser applying the constraints is
although the semantic relations between the relinked constituents are diverse not all relations implicated by parataxis can be expressed by
reported a trade off between coverage and correctness
however the definitions are rather vague and they are often recognized to be underspecified
the ie research mainstream focused essentially on the definition of lexica starting from a corpus with the implicit assumption that a corpus provided for an application is representative of the whole applica this work was carried on at itc irst as part of the author s dissertation for the degree in philosophy university of turin supervisor carla bazzanella
when the corpus size is limited the assumption of lexical representativeness of the sample corpus may not hold any longer and the problem of producing a representative lexicon starting from the corpus lexicon
hence proposals were made to replace these high level symbolic categories by statistically interpreted occurrence patterns derived from large text corpora
unfortunately one of the current trends in ie is the progressive reduction of the size of training corpora e.g. from the NUM NUM texts of the to the NUM texts in
it is important to compare the generation strategy presented here with semantic head driven generation which is a direct generation algorithm froni logical form encodings
for a formal definition of these four measures see
both processes text structuring presented here and term acquisition described reinforce each other
on the theoretical side this work has argued for a strict separation of precedence and categorial information in lfg or psg in general
propose a figure of merit closely related to our prefix estimate
a problem that remains outstanding however is that of the input to nlg applications where should we get it from and what should it look
significant degrees of overlap have also been reported whenever a description of one language has been attempted on the basis of another cf e.g.
characteristics that form part of good solutions are passed on through the generations and begin to combine in the offspring to approach global optima an effect that has been explained in terms of the building block
as p NUM note this analysis is valid for german and english but other languages might require different accounts
an affixal view of the mh definite article is established and is the starting point for the analysis we propose here
hearst gives an example of a potential hyponym hypernym pair broken bone injury
using hpsg as the linguistic theory in which analyses are conveyed grammars earl be directly implemented and their predictions verified
these are elhadad functional unification formalism fuf the kpml penman systems and approaches within the meaning text model cf
both the drama scheme and the schemes proposed by lancaster instead are meant to be use to annotate anaphoric information in texts but coreference is not the same as anaphoricity
based upon the results it is likely that this restriction can be relaxed but we have not pursued this
nitrogen has been used extensively as part of a semantics based japanese english mt system
the set of relations that may hold between a bridging reference and its antecedent or anchor is rather wide an extensive survey of the existing classifications can be found
we used the janus english german scheduling corpus to train our phrase based alignment model
extended markup language xml is a proposed specified by the world wide web consortium w3c
following a standardized framework ambiguous parsing results are henceforth assumed to be represented as packed shared forests psfs
a similar idea has been put forward by
this architecture however tacitly ignores evidence for structural disambiguation that may be contributed by strong expectations at the referential
m is irreducible if for any pair a b e n b can be reached from a the corresponding branching process is called connected if m
described this phenomenon as conjunction reduction whereby conjoined clauses that differ only in one item can be replaced by a simple clause that involves conjoining that item
the above technique for achieving robustness according to the deficient description model has been integrated into an anaphor resolution system for german
casper has been used in an upgraded version of plandoc a robust deployed system which generates reports for justifying the cost to the management in telecommunications domain
we do this not only to show the improvements made to the early paper but also to explain the rationale for choosing certain models of supertag disambiguation over others
the counts for the word supertag pairs for the words that do not appear in the corpus is estimated using the leaving one out technique ney
in their study of parsing the wsj have shown that a grammar trained on the inside outside re estimation algorithm can perform quite well on short simple sentences but falters as the sentence length increases
the study is conducted on both a simple air travel information system atis corpus and the more complex wall street journal wsj corpus
for even a moderately complex domain such as the atis corpus a grammar trained on data with constituent bracketing information produces much better parses than one trained on completely unmarked raw data
as a trigram model often fails to capture the cooccurrence was based on a different supertag tagset specifically the supertag corpus was reannotated with detailed supertags for punctuation and with a different analysis for subordinating conjunctions
a more detailed discussion about these properties is schabes and
features typically include stemmed words although sometimes multi word units and collocations have been as well as typological characteristics such as thesaural features
a distance of one matches rigid collocations whereas a distance of five captures related primitives within a region of the text
in some cases the texts are represented as vectors of sparse n grams of word occurrences and learning is applied over those vectors
the distance between vectors for one text usually a query and another usually a document then determines closeness or similarity
to determine whether the units match overall we employ a machine learning algorithm a widely used and effective rule induction system
these cases are thought to be rare on the basis of studies such which found that NUM of pronoun antecedents in the corpus analyzed were in the same sentence as the pronoun or the previous one
the second approach chang takes triples verb prep noun2 and nounl prep noun2 like those in table NUM as training data for acquiring semantic knowledge and performs pp attachment disambiguation on quadruples
some of these methods make use of prior knowledge in the form of an while others do not rely on any prior knowledge pereira
modification of the tf idf value is used for the weighting
for lfg the lexicalized subset of fragments used in the lfg dop model can be seen as supertags
this information can be represented by subtraction y x and is called differentia words by analogy with definition sentences in dictionaries which contain genus words and differentia
we first employed these ideas in the context of lexicalized tree adjoining grammars ltag in
a test corpus of similarly spelled words was developed from a list of american
although an aspectual lexicon of verbs would suffice to classify many clauses by their main verb only a verb s primary class is often
we intend to use profile to improve lexical choice in the summary generation component especially when producing user centered summaries or summary updates to appear
speech applications and the following for applications in phonetics and phonology
this function is based on similar elements of the formal language that introduce as part of their theory of referring
it also extends its linguistic coverage by integrating an analysis of vp ellipses with anaphora as
in p m i s is given as the posterior multinomial distribution p al al an an j s where ai is a model parameter and ai represents one of the possible values
we ob serve two threads in this discourse fragment one deal ing with events at the now time of the story the other
for our model the probability of alignment aj for position j depends on the previous alignment position aj NUM
the method presented in this paper is inspired by the distributional approach developed
by adding to the union of the three alignments all couples whose existence is predicted by transitivity a simple procedure for this can be found in
in both cases transfer is driven by the transfer module developed and implemented by
carberry and lambert modeling negotiation subdialogues their minds flowers
NUM constraints limit the allowable instantiation of variables in each component of a recipe
2this approach is similar to the idea of laying down tracks as in the compilation of monadic second order logic p NUM
in their paper on genre categorization take a somewhat different approach
a further alternative involves treating smooth transitions from mention in the rheme to mention as theme as cases of thematic continuity
the major components of the algorithm are not new but straightforward modifications of components and
a further contribution is that all steps are implemented in a freely available system the fsa utilities ss2 NUM NUM
see for more information about sgml and dtd
showed that prosodic information helps human discourse segmentation
we used labeled bracket matching for
NUM NUM NUM description of the czech tagset the pos tags in the czech pdt corpus haji and are encoded in NUM character strings
greenspan studied the effect of sentential context on concrete nouns
charniak for instance has shown that a grammar can be easily constructed when the examples are fully labeled parse trees
us u continua this is consistent with strube observation that a ii rain transition ideally predicts a smooth ssw r in the following utterance
in this paper i discuss one such entity reference resolution algorithm for a general geo political business domain developed for sri s fastus tm system one of the leading ie systems which can also be seen as a representative of today s ie technology
the input to reference resolution in the theoretical literature is assumed to be fully parsed sentences often with syntactic attributes such as grammatical functions and thematic roles on the grosz joshi
for purposes of pruning and only for purposes of pruning the prior probability of each constituent category is multiplied by the generative probability of that
optimality theory ot as applied to pm does claim to capture this relationship using a ranked set of violable prosodic constraints together with global violation minimization
the ot framework itself has been shown to be expressible with weighted finite state automata weighted intersection and if constraints and ot s gen component the function from underlying forms to prosodified surface forms are regular sets
although the general idea of using a finite state oracle to guide a parser has been previously proposed for both the details of our implementation of the idea and its specific application to prosodic morphology are believed to be novel
seems content in employing a great number of cv templates in his large scale finite state model of arabic morphology which are intersected with lexical roots and then transformed to surface realizations by various epenthesis deletion and assimilation rules
in calculating whether to accept a belief evaluate belief invokes determine acceptance which performs the NUM it utilizes a simplified version of galliers belief logal et al
in some sense degree can be viewed as capturing of a piece of evidence the more support an antecedent provides for bel the more relevant it is to bel
propositional information currently time expressions is encoded in a knowledge representation language
xerox also investigated a new feature selection method the binomial likelihood ratio test
a generic region that is a region which nearly perfectly fits a locality descriptor for an operationalization of degrees of applicability is better described by language especially when some other region can be used more beneficially as a component of the referential description
while the strategy is universally applicable to any tokenization ambiguity resolution here we will only examine its performance in the resolution of for ease of direct comparison with works in the literature
parallel to what dalton did for separating physical mixtures from page NUM NUM we are now suggesting to regard the hypothesis as a lawof language and to take it as the proposition of what a word token must be
the most accessible introduction to this literature we have found
if a word form can not be recognized its part of speech is predicted by a guesser which makes use of statistical data derived from german suffix
a good lognormal fit indicates high productivity and the large z of yule simon model also means richness of the vocabulary
in addition existence of efficient disambiguation scheme by dealing with best only substructures utilizing stored empirical translation examples compiled from a linguistic database the explosion of structural ambiguities is significantly
this section explains the inner structure of pstfs focusing on the execution mechanism of csas for further detail on cas
the possibility of applying this sort of example based framework into multilingual translation such as a japanese german pair and a japanese korean pair has been shown
tdmt has the following key features utilization of constituent boundary patterns cb patterns cb patterns based on meaningful information units are applied to parse an input incrementally and produce translations based on the synchronization of the source and target language structure
the design of the grammar is similar to the ovis grammar van in that it uses rules with a relatively specific context free backbone
good gives a method of re estimating the population probabilities of the types in the sample as well as estimating the probability mass of unseen types
furthermore ambiguity in the combination of patterns which have not been constrained by the linguistic levels is also dissolved incrementally by using the total sum of the semantic distances of patterns
we adopt the general approach advocated and build the morphological analyzer as the combination of several finite state transducers some of which are constructed directly from the elicited information while others are constructed from the output of the machine learning stage
currently the provisions we have for such constraints are limited to writing regular expressions albeit at a much higher level but capturing such constraints using a more natural language e.g. can be stipulated for future versions
in one application mpd was run on the dataset from the seminal on word order universals
unergatives are distinguished from the other classes in being rare in the transitive form see for an explanation of this fact
manual classification of large numbers of verbs is a difficult and resource intensive
in this paper we will just consider the dialogue act based analysis and
the plausibility p of the estimated referential property that is a definite noun phrase when our system estimates a referential property it outputs the score of each category
an impressive core of linguistic knowledge is available but has not yet been experimented on in building language learning software though work is underway for integration of heterogeneous nlp components
among the first milestones in intelligent tutoring systems its was that used a knowledge base to check the student s answers and to allow him her to interact in natural language
multext east in collaboration with eagles evaluated adapted and extended the eagles morphosyntactic specifications rule format lexical specifications corpus tagset etc to cover the six multext east languages
two interikces are driven by zdatr the testbed which permits interactions with previously defined and integrated datr theories cbg1999 and the scratchpad shown in figure NUM with which queries can be written and tested
based on the principle that its corpus encoding format should be standardized and homogeneous both for interchange and for facilitating openended retrieval tasks multext east adopted the corpus encoding standard ces which has been developed to be optimally suited for use in language engineering and corpus based work
various ways of theoretically releasing this assumption were given in
the multext east copernicus projec0 erjavec was a spin off of the lre project multext NUM intended to fill these gaps by developing significant resources for six cee languages bulgarian czech estonian hungarian romanian slovene that follow a consistent and principled encoding format and are maximally suited to easy processing by corpus handling tools
the resulting system is strongly equivalent to cfgs yet is fully lexicalized and still o n NUM parsable as shown by
a classical approach to coherence relations is to classify them into relational or discourse domains semantic vs content vs epistemic external vs internal subject matter vs
but as any statistical method it needs documents of a huge size and thus can not take into account words occurring a limited number of times in the database which is the case of roughly one word out of two according zipf s law
to accept only those translation pairs with sufficiently high statistical confidence for example
more details are given in
see ss5 for discussion
searle1969 the schemes were based on
we extend the approach of h for time mapping
the statistical translation model introduced by ibm views translation as a noisy channel process
the work reported in focuses on the construction of sensus a large knowledge base for supporting the pangloss machine translation system
these goals can be thought as a stereotypical model of the
readers interested in a more thorough description of srv are referred
the definition of given used here is that
reported significant improvements when using a topic detector to build specialized language models on the broadcast news bn corpus
the difference between average linkage and maximum linkage algorithms manifests in the way the similarity between clusters is computed see
used bottom up clustering techniques on discourse contexts performing sentencelevel model interpolation with weights updated dynamically through an em like procedure
rathe assumption is that strong co occurrence patterns of linguistic features mark underlying functional p NUM
for examples of how the order of execution of tasks can favor a certain textual result over another
if a repair overlaps a previous one then its reparandum onset is likely to co occur with the alteration onset of the
thus our approach to lexical rules is similar to in that all basic and derived lexical entries are subject to a few general linking constraints that coindex syntactic arguments with appropriate proto roles
this probabilistic approach to lexical rules integrates neatly with extant proposals to control application of lexical rules efficiently within a constraint based framework such as those of
bouma and propose techniques for delayed evaluation of lexical rules so that they apply on demand at parse time
NUM NUM NUM a rcb NUM NUM NUM
for a discussion of the appropriateness of t ps for hpsg and a comparison with other feature logic approaches designed for hpsg
in this paper we investigate the selective application of magic to typed feature grammars a type of constraint logic grammar based on typed feature logic tgvps
the proposed parser is related to the so called lemma table deduction system which allows the user to specify whether top down sub computations are to be tabled
this information goes to a pre trained maximum entropy model for more details on this aproach
both the speech synthesiser and the speech perception system are described in more detail in the agents start with an empty phoneme list they know no phonemes at all
this problem has been dealt with in the topic detection and tracking tdt project by a more flexible score that becomes gradually worse as the distance between hypothesized and real boundaries
topic utilizes both grammatical cues and semantic inference based on pre coded domain specific knowledge more general approaches assess word mmllanty based on thesauri or dictionary
for example the views of lester can be seen as a form of cdk though they are not a declarative representation
it first groups news articles together identifies commonalities between them and notes how the discourse influences wording by setting realization flags which denote such discourse features as similarity and contradiction realization flags mckeown guide the choice of connectives in the generation stage
existing summarization systems e.g. kupiec rau brandow typically use statistical techniques to department of computer science NUM computer science building columbia university new york ny NUM
some of the most popular sites include news agencies and television stations like cnn and clarinet s e news as well as on line versions of print media such as the new york times on the
finds that requiring binary branching as well as headedness and head projection restrictions on the acquirable grammar leads to similar improvements
it is well known that natural language exhibits dependencies that context free grammars cfgs can
before the antecedents in indirect anaphora were determined sentences were transformed into a case structure by the case analyzer
breiman describes a simple and effective method for generating new pseudo examples fl om existing data and incorporating them into a tree based learning algorithm to increase prediction accuracy in domains with few training exalnples
used clustering to build an unlabeled hierarchy of nouns
several applications to real tasks have been performed and regarding nlp we find ensembles of classifiers in context sensitive spelling correction text categorization and text filtering
of the errors were caused by different sequences of words between the determiner and the noun phrase head word e.g. the factory the cramped five story pre NUM factory is ok but the virus program the graduate computer science program is n t
since almost all failing unifications are avoided through the use of filtering techniques we will now focus on methods to reduce the number of chart items that do not contribute to any analysis for instance by computing context free or regular approximations of the hpsg grammars e.g.
states of a markov model represent syntactic categories or tuples of syntactic categories and outputs represent words and and others
sch clustered the examples in the training set and manually assigned each cluster a sense by observing NUM NUM members of the cluster
later results the system was re evaluated on the data with the added null elements removed
other researchers have argued similarly although most previous work on discourse based summarisation follows a different discourse model namely rhetorical structure theory
our reproducibility and stability results are in the describes as giving marginally significant results for reasonable size data sets when correlating two coded variables which would show a clear correlation if there were perfect agreement
the literature presents a variety of definitions of semantic focus some describing focus in terms of semantic and others more directly in relationship to
this problem is studied within sno if a sparse architecture utilizing an on line learning algorithm based on
according to although an ultimate criteria for deciding the ranking has not been worked out yet there are evidences to support the idea that grammatical role such as subject object etc can affect the cf ranking
the winnow local mistake driven learning is used at each target node to learn its dependence on the input nodes
in fact our evaluation shows that the results are comparable to syntax based methods
agreement features enforce the possessorpossessed agreement on person and number via unification as in ucg kalem in uc u pencil gen 3s
we applied the em learning algorithm described in on this data with one variation
perhaps the most studied cue for discourse structure are lexical cues also called cue phrases which are defined as follows by cue phrases are linguistic expressions a telling such as now and well that function as explicit indicators of the structure of a discourse
lsthe treatment of coordination and resembles ours in simple cases
seven cu boulder linguistic graduate students labeled NUM conversations from the switchboard swbd database of humanto human telephone conversations with these tags resulting in NUM unique tags for the NUM NUM swbd utterances
a word is nothing but a segment in ch NUM NUM
the results of preliminary tests on a small automatically generated corpus were quite promising and encouraged us to apply our search algorithm to a more realistic task
we carried out a second evaluation of the approach on a different set of sample texts from the genre of technical manuals NUM page portable style writer user
in the refined model NUM alignment probabilities a ilj l m are included to model the effect that the position of a word influences the position of its translation
as expected some of the preferences had to be modified in order to fit with specific features of polish
our first evaluation exercise was based on a random sample text from a technical manual
for p ejle NUM we use a class based polygram language
does hypertext authoring of newspaper articles by word s lexical chains which are calculated using wordnet
as shown by darroch lauritzen each graphical model describes a markov random field
for a further discussion of the relationships between graphical models and decision trees see
the dudani weighted k nearest neighbor classifier k NUM slightly outperforms collins back off model
define a contextual representation as a characterization of the linguistic contexts in which a word appears
this example is similar to the well known examples of long distance anaphora in task oriented dialogues
there is a complication in caused by the use of cooper storage to handle scope ambiguities
ignoring imperatives there are two main types of moves questions and assertions
the underlying procedure is valid for grammars written in typed unification formalisms it is here carried out for systemic grammars within the development environment for text generation
smore forgiving scales exist but have not yet been discussed by the discourse processing community e.g. the one in rietveld
our example system goalgetter takes data on a football match as input
this is a slightly modified version of a structural condition proposed by dirksen
a total of NUM NUM news reports on basketball games NUM tmb were collected
tenny the development of the walking event can be measured along the explicit path argument the appalachian trail in NUM
it is encouraging to note that point out that the muc NUM articles which we used in our experiments have less external evidence than do wall street journal articles which suggests that on wall street journal articles our system might perform even better than on muc NUM articles
despite the reservations of all the speech language pathology experts it seems to me that the work on alignment suggests that this aspect of computerized articulation test analysis is a research aim well worth pursuing especially if collaborators from the speech language pathology field can be found
the termer used for multi word term acquisition is
the literature offers discussions on patterns for coding nominalisations and their arguments
king discusses the general issues in nlu system evaluations from a software engineering point of view
inter alia for investigations on thematic restrictions on derived nominals
since the lcs representation involves lexical we can utilize the verb internal semantic structure so as to calculate coherence relations in a farely principled way
according to te appears most frequently in spontaneous speech NUM NUM of all connectives and in informal writing NUM
an agent s ability to perform an action depends upon its ability to satisfy both the physical and knowledge preconditions of that action
statistically speaking we were satisfied with the output of an enhanced version of the procedure described also known under the name magerman black headword percolation rules
a detailed evaluation of the lda is
in order to process correctly some problematic splittings such as coordinations attributive past participles and sequences preposition determiner the system acquires and uses corpus based selection restrictions of adjectives and nouns
for example in a set of hand crafted rules are used to determine discourse neutral prosodic phrasing achieving an accuracy of approximately NUM
we also employ a statistical method based on a generalized linear model provided in the s package to select salient predictors for input to ripper
until recently there has been only limited effort on modeling intonation for cts
for this preprocessing of the hpsg grammar we adapted the hpsg to tag compilation process described in
grammar development is facilitated by a chart browser that permits a quick and efficient discovery of grammar
for the first ranked predictions the accuracy rate is about NUM which is on the same level as the first ranked speech act predictions reported in
the next phase which syntax is undergoing is the compilation of rules and representations back into fast low powered finite state devices
efficiency concerns drive to adopt a committed choice strategy under which successfully applied productions can not be backtracked over and complex negative and quantificational constraints are used to limit rule application
employ a unification based grammar formalism augmented with functional constraints and a bottomup incremental tabular parsing algorithm
these aspectual distinctions are defined
our grammar representation for multimodal expressions draws on unification based approaches to syntax such as head null driven phrase structure grammar hpsg
the centering framework is one of the most influential computational linguistics theories relating local focus to the form chosen for referring expressions
fog takes data from a time series of weather depiction charts and produces a bilingual french and english weather report for the period
modify utterance boundaries to re attach interrupted utterances or use kameyama s proposal for center
propose a method of evaluating a model against centering rule NUM measuring the cost of the listener s inference load
this paper describes the motivation and design of the corpus encoding standard ces ide an enccding standard for linguistic corpora intended to meet the need for the principled development of standardized encoding practices for linguistic corpora
however experiments with human showed that segmentation based on lexical cohesion is quite accurate compared to manual ones
delhw i t collocation as a pair of correlated words m i se t mutual information to evaluate such xi a NUM orrelations of word pairs of length two
propose a word clustering method based on syntactic behavior but no language model is discussed
there have been two main robust parsing paradigms finite state grammar based approaches and and statistical parsing
estimated by held out method or deleted interpolation method
discussed the treatment of nominalizations
such assumptions underlie influential theories of language variation and change and psycholinguistic accounts of preferences and misinterpretation during language comprehension e.g.
in the tag definition the derivation trees are context and can be expressed by a cfg
we use the linkit to identify simplex noun phrases and match those that share the same head
we used a bottom up for ltag
for example discusses all semantic typing in terms of two mechanisms the detection of similarity and difference
the problem of how to adapt a general lexicon to a particular application domain and merge domain ontologies with a general lexicon is out of the scope of this paper but discussed
in determining properties of collocations most of corpus based approaches accepted that the words of a collocation have a particular statistical
according to breidt mi or t score thresholds work satisfactory as a filter for extraction of collocations but filtered out at least half of the actual
a context set is defined as the set of entities the addressee is currently assumed to be attending to the contrast set is the same except to the intended referent an equivalent term is the set of potential
in his hudson mentioned three characteristics of dg
the approach undertaken by appelt and is very elaborate but it suffers from limited coverage missing assessments of the relative benefit of alternatives and notorious inefficiency
this approach is inspired from work who uses paradigms to organize morphological information and string equations to handle string operations
lpg was already sgml encoded with the res and mrs using mark up conventions
text books which are concerned primarily with computational semantics and natural language interfaces such as and tend to introduce a toy domain such as a geography database or an excerpt of a movie script as application area
hypergram hypertextual grammars is a model for grammar development and documentation inspired to the idea of literate programming which was first cf
for example as NUM the description that one NUM basic level actions are by their nature single agent actions
to alleviate this problem i have made a commitment to schema size in line with the notion of chunking
this metric is based on work in categorisation and diagnosis and measures the similarity between the observations and a condition
the grammar is developed in a computational environment called xle xerox linguistic environment which provides automatic parsing and generation as well as an interface to the preprocessing tools we are describing
apart from this we have tried to avoid more complex issues of reference insofar
we are part of a project which aims at developing lfg grammars in parallel for french english and german butt et al to appear
we train two hmm alignment models for the two translation directions f e and e f by applying the em algorithm
words can be grouped into classes and these classes can be used as the basis of the equivalence classes of the context rather than the word
the deep linguistic translation track whose modules all exchange linguistic information encoded in vits consists of three components an hpsg parser combined with a robust semantic component the semantic based transfer component and the generation component an efficient multi lingual generator some more details below
it is also important to note that joshi and vijay shanker s definition of tag compositional semantics differs from that of shieber and schabes using synchronous tag in that the former preserves the scope ordering of predicative adjunctions which may be permuted in the latter altering the meaning of the sentence
we ran the decoder in a single pass using crossword acoustic modeling and a trigram word based backoff built with the cmu
he mentions the need for a decide to believe act but nothing further is done with it
in particular the generation of the morphological analyzer component has to be accomplished almost semi automatically
instead of determining recall precision breakeven point as in joachims i998 or average precision over different recall values as we provide both values to determine which type of error an algorithm is more susceptible to
each of the bibliography s categories is represented according to its frequency in so that the corpus can be considered representative of the written german of that time
the results we have presented here are given solely for this harder part which may explain why at roughly NUM points of f score they are lower than those reported for current state of the art parsers e.g. collins
reported improvements in italian semantic boundary detection with acoustic information
time of the verb e.g. past tense versus present tense or changes in aspect e.g. atomic versus extended events versus states as defined by
we have been able to extend the acquisition model to a population of learners and formalize kroch s idea of grammar competition over time
therefore sentences with an overt subject are not necessarily useful in distinguishing we show that a child learner en route to her target grammar entertains multiple grammars
on the other hand in memory based models such as the number of features used in tagging is actually variable within the maximum length i.e. the number of features spanning the tree and the different relevances of the different features are taken into account in tagging
given that the target word is more relevant than any of the words in its context and that the words in context may have different relevances in tagging each element of the input is weighted with information gains i.e. numbers expressing the average amount of reduction of training set information entropy when the poss of the element
the snt can disambiguate the pos of each word using a fixed length of the context by training it in a supervised manner with a well known error back propagation algorithm for details see
a recent paper by bootstraps a dictionary of locations from just a small set of known locations
we build on the framework of multinomial naive bayes text
previous attempts to incorporate pos tags into a language model view the pos tags as intermediate objects and sum over all
the greatest problem in ot based implementation is the possibility of the infinite candidate set when epenthesis violation of dep or deletion violation of max are allowed since gen can produce infinitely any candidates
the relationship between the initiative and efficiency of task oriented dialogues was empirically and analytically examined
one of the possible alternatives to the witten bell method is the good turing
the initiative was used to analyze behavior of anaphoric expressions in
schegloff pointed out three research topics of multi party dialogue from the viewpoint of conversation analysis
utilizing local and sentential constraints what implemented was simply a token unigram scoring function
the only research that we are aware of is the work of
in our search procedure we use a mixture based alignment model that slightly differs from the model introduced as model NUM in
we give a trivial proof of this fact
this formalism is employed for the representation of the discourse structure
NUM such combinations are often subject to bi directional dependencies that are hard to capture
also weighted average clustering never seems to outperform the nearest centroid method suggesting that the advantages of probabilistic clustering over hard clustering may be computational rather than in modeling elfectiveness boolean clustering is
distributional clustering assigns to each word a probability distribution over clusters to which it may belong and characterizes each cluster by a centroid which is an average of cooccurrence distributions of words weighted according to cluster membership probabilities
for instance p NUM argue this class based approach which follows long traditions in semantic classification is very appealing as it attempts to capture typical properties of classes of words
this incompleteness has been illustrated empirically by showing that some indicators help for only a subset of
this prediction differs result namely that it is better not to disambiguate below a NUM accuracy
tables NUM illustrates an array of linguistic con null constraints on aspectual class primarily from
with a plugging a usr can be translated to a discourse representation structure drs a pron condition introduces a discourse marker which should be linked to an antecedent group is a merge between drss passen a one place predicate etc
proposed a method of default handling in incremental generation based on this observation
we abbreviate the different entailments willingness and successful transfer concerning the first object in 6a and 6b as NUM nevertheless the general approach to lexical rules is equally compatible with hpsg combinatory categorial grammar tree adjoining grammar or indeed any grammatical theory embeddable in the t d fs representation language
take mark miller model for example
a semantic transfer approach based on a deep linguistic analysis of the input utterance competes with statistical example based and dialogue act based translation approaches
future work will inelude the application of automatic word alignment to enhance the dictionary
the integrated system developed during the the search was supported by the german federal ministry for education science research and technology under grant no
this assumption is not uncontroversial
basic processing entity for some components is the so called dialogue
there is a certain consensus that verb diatheses are regular sense extensions
finally for locations marked with which we have no more means to cope simply make decisions by the value of mi we set it to NUM NUM same as that in the system of
these phenomena probably due to the nature of each
its processing is centered around dialogue acts it is assumed that every utterance can be attributed one or more dialogue acts
